MEDIDAS POSIBLES DE IPM EN LA POST-COSECHA .1 TRATAMIENTOS POST-COSECHA

FISHING. Groups of people moved seasonally in order to be near food sources. When the transition to farming came, most historians believe that it was made indepen- dently in several different regions of the world.

While it was previously believed that the first farm- ing was carried out in MESOPOTAMIA about 8000 BCE, there now is evidence to suggest that ancient peoples harvested barley as early as 16,000 BCE. Likewise, it ap- pears that wild SORGHUM was harvested in the area of KHARTOUM, in present-day Republic of the SUDAN, as early as 9000 BCE. While not yet universally accepted, this evidence has done much to change long-held views of human technological development.

The first food-production method used by ancient Afri- cans was probably gathering and storing grain, or cereal, produced by wild grasses. Gatherers then began actively to encourage the growth of the grasses, possibly by weeding to remove competing plants. Stone hoes were invented to ac- complish this task. The next step was collecting and sowing seed from the strongest plants.

The transition to food production was made during the STONE AGE in different ways in different areas of Africa. The people of the NILE VALLEYtook advantage of the fact that while the WHITE NILE flowed continuously, the BLUE NILEflooded annually, leaving behind deposits of dark, fertile soil along its banks. When the water re- ceded, the people pushed seeds into this muddy deposit, and a crop would grow as the soil dried out.

Between 8000 and 4000 BCE the climate of the SA- HARA DESERTwas much wetter than it is today, and a se- ries of rivers and lakes there provided good fishing. As the Sahara gradually became drier, however, from about 3000 to 1000 BCE, the desert spread, and rivers and lakes became smaller and smaller. The emphasis on fishing gradually shifted to farming the savanna grasslands that bordered the desert. Stone Age farmers of the area used sickle blades for cutting grasses and grinding stones to make flour.

The crops chosen for domestication depended on the conditions of the area. For example, along the edges of the spreading desert, pearl MILLET was domesticated, probably because it was fairly drought-resistant. In con- trast, in the wetlands of the upper NIGER RIVER, wild rice was grown. The peoples of the tropical forest planted root crops, such as YAMS, instead of cereals. In the highlands of ETHIOPIAfarmers grew oil plants and cultivated the ba- nana-like enset for its starchy stalks.

The development of farming in forested areas re- quired tools to clear the land. New techniques of grinding and polishing stone resulted in improved axes and adzes. To make them, a stone was ground against a harder stone to create a sloping, sharp-edged surface. This was an im- provement over the earlier method of sharpening a stone by striking it against another stone to chip away flakes. Other techniques for clearing forests included killing

trees by ringing them and setting fires to burn the under- growth. Forest farmers also took advantage of natural clearings to grow yams and palm trees for nuts. The IRON AGE brought with it further improvements in farming tools.

Various techniques traditionally were used to pro- duce a rich enough soil to support cereal grains as a primary crop. In the eastern and central regions of Africa, farmers with nothing more than simple hand- held hoes used the technique known as citemene, (shift- ing culture). This entailed clearing an area in a wooded region and building a FIRE from the branches of large trees. Smaller trees were usually reduced in size to a stump and became focal points for new crops. This method, usually carried out by men, occurred near the end of a dry season and before the start of the rainy season. Farmers learned whether or not the soil of a particular area was conducive to growing grain crops by observing the quality of surrounding grasses or even noting the presence or absence of certain types of in- sects and animals.

Burning dead grass and undergrowth enriched the soil with minerals and nutrients that were useful for planting new crops. After two to three years of crop pro- duction the ground was often allowed to lie fallow in order to recover its strength. During that time, a new crop of cereal grains was planted elsewhere or in combi- nation with secondary crops such as pumpkins, beans, or cowpeas. These secondary crops helped ensure proper drainage and supplied other types of nutrients.

The effectiveness of these techniques varied from re- gion to region. In addition, the populations of some re- gions planted grain randomly. Generally, however, the entire FAMILYhad specific tasks in relation to the planting and harvesting of grain. Families sometimes were assisted by the community’s AGE SETS during harvest time, when extra LABOR was critical. Harvesting grain required that the crops be dried in the sun, threshed, and then trans- ported to large granaries. In traditional societies the first harvested grain was given as a symbolic gift to wives or other members of the family. Over the centuries, family farmers formed societies that managed to create a surplus that could be traded for needed items or stored for future use. This surplus also left the people time for raising other foodstuffs and for the development of society as a whole.

As the transition to farming spurred Africans to in- vent new tools and cultivation methods, the social, politi- cal, and economic fabric of their lives also changed. People no longer had to move constantly in order to gather food. Consequently, permanent settlements sprang up, and more enduring housing was built. Populations in- creased, too, as women bore more children who could be kept safe within the settlement. More children meant more hands to work the farms, so surplus food could be

produced and traded to other peoples for raw materials and other necessary items. Not surprisingly, the changes brought about by the rise of AGRICULTUREled to the for- mation of rich and poor classes, with those who controlled the land and food production becoming the wealthy class.

See also: AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION(Vol. I).

festivals

Celebrations that often combine religious, his- toric, and cultural themes. Widespread in Africa, festivals frequently occurred on an annual or seasonal basis. In many societies festivals were a means of restoring spiri- tual balance and maintaining a strong sense of commu- nity. Ancient rulers also used community festivals as a way to reinforce their regal power. One of the earliest— and most noteworthy—examples of this was the ancient Egyptian SED FESTIVAL, which was a celebration of divine kingship. In western Africa festival dates are often deter- mined by DIVINATION and are often unknown until the last minute.

Harvest Festivals One of the most important festi- vals in agricultural communities is the annual harvest fes- tival. The IGBO people of present-day NIGERIA celebrate Ikeji, meaning “new yam eating,” by serving only dishes made of YAMS to symbolize the abundance of the crop. The New Yam Festival, marking the end of one planting season and the start of the next, is a time to thank the yam spirits through the ancestors for a bountiful harvest. The king or the oldest man in the community tradition- ally eats the first yam, his position bestowing on him the role of intermediary between the people and the spirit world. The first day of this four-day festival is the holiest and most important. Sacrifices are offered to the ances- tors, who it is believed walk among the living on that day. All male children are expected to attend and offer rever- ence. The remaining days of Ikeji provide masquerades for the entertainment of guests. Marriages are often con- tracted at this time.

The peoples of the NIGER DELTAcelebrate the Ikwerre, Kalabari, and Okrira festivals in honor of the water spir- its. Masqueraders wear MASKSthat resemble fish or water birds. Rituals include divinations and sacrifices, followed by songs and dances depicting these spirits, who, it is be- lieved, are present within the masqueraders who wear masks representing them.

Festivals Honoring Ancestors Reverence for an- cestors and belief in SPIRIT POSSESSION are important as- pects of traditional Yoruban religion. The EGUNGUN festival, which honors the ancestors and requests their blessings, lasts 24 days. On each day of the festival a masked dancer, believed to be possessed by an ancestor, dances through the town or village. The body of the dancer is totally concealed so that he becomes the disem- bodied spirit of the ancestor his DANCE honors. On the final day of the festival a priest sacrifices animals at the

shrine of the ancestors and pours their blood on the shrine. The sacrificed animals are consumed at the feast that follows.

Festivals in Honor of Divinities The YORUBAcele- brate many festivals to honor the many DEITIES, or ORISHA, in the pantheon of their traditional belief system. One commonly celebrated festival honors SHANGO, the god of thunder and lightning and the orisha of drum and dance, who is feared and respected among the people. Shango’s followers come to him for protection from their enemies, for legal problems, and for solutions to assorted difficulties. Shango’s festival lasts 20 days, a period during which his hereditary priest makes sacrifices at Shango’s shrine. On the final day, the priest becomes possessed by Shango and gains magical powers, including the ability to eat fire and, much later, swallow gunpowder. A proces- sion ending in a feast concludes the festival.

Festivals of Secret SocietiesMany peoples through- out Africa have formed SECRET SOCIETIES, bound by oath, in response to a special local or cultural need. The secret societies also conduct festivals. One noteworthy exam- ple is the Yoruba Gelede festival, held annually from March until May, before the rainy season. This festival, intended to appease the destructive powers of the an- cient mothers, is the remedy for the distress caused by the threat of drought or infertility. Males dance in pairs, their faces uncovered but with female masks perched on top of their heads. The faces on the masks show the serenity and composure considered desirable in Yoruba women. Because the dancers’ identities are not secret, they are not thought to be possessed by a god and may walk freely among the people in costume before and after the masquerade.

Other Festivals Celebrations also generally ac- companied the RITES OF PASSAGEinto adulthood, follow- ing CIRCUMCISIONor clitoridectomy and their associated rituals. In these and in other ceremonies, the impor- tance of blood must be noted. Spilling blood when mak- ing a sacrifice means that life, whether human or ani- mal, is being given back to God, who is the ultimate source of life. Among the MBUTIwho live in what is now the Republic of the CONGO, blood shed during circumci- sion is thought to bind the person to the land and to his ancestors in a solemn covenant or agreement. Once the individual’s blood is shed, he joins the stream of his peo- ple. There is, however a widespread belief in African soci- eties that menstrual blood is ritually dangerous and taboo, forcing women, even priestesses, to absent themselves from shrines and banning them from handling any ritual objects. Even though women frequently functioned as mediums with the spirit world, the task often belonged to a girl before she reached puberty or to an older woman past childbearing age.

See also: KUOMBOKA CEREMONY (Vol. V); RELIGION, TRADITIONAL(Vol. I).

Fezzan (Fezan)

Saharan region of the present-day North African country of LIBYA. The Fezzan was the site of ancient settlements and cave paintings, some of which date back to prehistoric times. Controlled by a people known to the ancient Greeks as the GARAMANTES and sometimes called the Garamantian Empire, the area later became part of the Roman Empire under the name Phazania.

See also: FEZZAN(Vols. II, III).

Further reading: Charles Daniels, The Garamantes

of Southern Libya (New York: Oleander Press, 1970).

fire

Fragments of burned bone found in a cave at Swart- kans, SOUTH AFRICA, provide evidence of the intentional use of fire in Africa 1 million years ago. In other parts of Africa, hearths were probably not commonplace as centers of human habitation until about 60,000 years ago, when there was a pronounced rise in social and cultural activity.

Anthropologist Louis Leakey pointed out that the same primitive tool used to make fire—a hard, pointed stick twirled between the palms to make a piece of soft wood smolder—can also be used as a hand drill to make holes in shell and bone. Fire and such drilled objects, perhaps used as personal ornamentation, enter the ar- chaeological record in Africa at the same time.

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Fire also has its place in African mythology. For ex- ample, in the creation stories of the Dagara people of what is now BURKINA FASOand GHANA, fire is the first element on the wheel of life. Water is the sec- ond element. According to these stories, in the be- ginning there was no world as humans know it, but only a burning ball of fire moving at great speed. When this ball of fire encountered a massive body of water, the shock forced fire into the underworld, leaving a hot, steamy surface that was fertile for liv- ing things. This surface, called Earth, is the third el- ement on the Dagara wheel of life. The minerals and stones and other hard components of the earth hold things together and thus make up the fourth element. The fifth element, vegetative nature, came into existence when the clouds of steam in the at- mosphere subsided, allowing plant life to grow.

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In tropical Africa the nights are close to 12 hours long year-round, and darkness falls abruptly. The first uses of fire were to provide protection from animals and, later, to help in hunting and toolmaking. Control of fire made the night safe. Fires caused by lightning and set by humans helped thin the vast African forests and turn woodlands into grasslands, making cultivation

and passage easier. The main areas of migration and set- tlement in prehistoric Africa tended to be in the savanna regions.

fishing

Early inhabitants of Africa were primarily no- madic foragers, but archaeological evidence indicates that several groups also established very early fishing communi- ties. The Ishango people of Lake Albert were active fisher- men about 23,000 BCE, as were the inhabitants of Wadi

Kubbaniya in EGYPT 5,000 years later. Not until 7000 BCE

did fishing communities start to emerge in abundance, however. In addition to the NILE and NIGER rivers, the

banks of the Congo and the Zambezi rivers emerged as fish- ing areas. Harpoons and net weights have been found in some of the settlements, indicating that early NOMADSwere

able to live a semi-sedentary life for the first time.

With a plentiful FOOD supply, these early fishermen

were able to establish villages of up to 1,000 people living in permanent dwellings. Their social structure changed from loose ties between families (which was typical of nomadic peoples) to more structured communities. New concepts, like property and inheritance, emerged as they accumulated nets, harpoons, and other tools necessary for fishing.

Although the social progression of these early fishing communities is unclear, they were successful enough to flourish for thousands of years. As agricultural technol- ogy was introduced, fishing villages began to trade fish for the crops and commodities of neighboring villages.

Early fishing techniques were improved upon over time, but the seasonal rhythms of the rural fishing lifestyle remained largely unchanged until the latter part of the 19th century. As the high era of European colonial- ism began many indigenous fishermen were forced to abandon fishing as a means of sustenence in order to pro- vide LABORfor colonial ventures.

See also:FISHING, COMMERCIAL(Vol. V).

flamingos

The African flamingo is reddish with black wing feathers. In ancient EGYPT, however, these birds

were frequently found in lakes, a fact that led to a strik- ing difference between the birds of ancient Egypt and those of the rest of the continent. Flamingos actually are white in color; their pink hue comes from eating tiny pink shrimp. Since brine shrimp are rarely found in Egyptian lakes, even today many Egyptian flamingos are only a very pale pink.

During the height of power for the Roman Empire in Africa, flamingo tongues were consumed as a great deli- cacy. In fact, flamingos were such a popular food in an- cient ROMEthat the birds were threatened with extinction.

To protect them, the Romans established a law forbidding the hunting of flamingos.

flies

Adult flies measure between .25 and .5 inches (0.6 and 1.2 cm) in width. Some flies are known to carry malaria and other serious diseases. For example, the tsetse fly, which lives throughout tropical areas south of the SAHARA DESERT, is a known carrier of the parasite that causes sleeping sickness.

In ancient EGYPT flies were considered symbols of valor and determination. Often, GOLDmedals in the shape of flies were given to accomplished soldiers. Flies were also recognized as pests. Egyptians covered their doors and windows with mats to keep them out. According to the Bible, an infestation of flies was among the 10 plagues sent to Egypt by God to persuade the Egyptians to release the Israelites from slavery.

See also: MALARIA (Vol. V); TSETSE FLIES (Vol. II); DISEASE IN ANCIENT AFRICA(Vol. 1).

folklore

Proverbs, stories, tales, beliefs, customs, codes, and literature of a culture passed on from generation to generation, usually as ORAL TRADITION. Since the stories and proverbs of ancient African cultures were typically told and not written, much of what we know about an- cient folklore comes from the versions of stories that still exist in present-day Africa. Scholars believe that this exis- tent folklore is very old and has been passed down for centuries, enabling people of today to learn a great deal about the people of the past.

In Africa, as in other parts of the world, folklore takes different forms for different purposes. Generally, though, figures in these stories can go beyond the con- straints of everyday life. They may amass great wealth, visit imagined places, or perform actions that if carried out in real life would merit punishment or even death. Though folklore can contain magical elements, the ratio- nale for telling the stories is often to help real people bet- ter understand their world.

Creation myths are among the most common types of

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