Medio Ambiente Fuentes de Agua:

history of the introduction of Judaism to ancient Africa is not altogether clear. The oldest of the world’s three major monotheistic religions (CHRISTIANITY and Islam are the others), Judaism arose in the Middle East, in the land of the modern-day state of Israel. In the view of the ancient

Israelites, God (Yahweh in Hebrew) rewarded his people with bountiful harvests. But, it was believed, Yahweh also punished wrongdoers with misfortune. According to the Jewish scriptures, the Israelites were descended from a single ancestor, Jacob, whose 12 sons became the progen- itors of 12 separate but related Jewish tribes.

During a time of famine, about 1600 BCE, a handful of the tribes migrated to EGYPT, where they were eventu- ally forced into slavery. Later the prophet Moses led them out of Egypt and into the so-called Promised Land. Fol- lowing their conquest of the land of Canaan in Palestine, the early Israelites began to assert an influence over Egyptian culture. Under the leadership of King Saul in 1020 BCE, and later under King David, the Israelites were able to capture Jerusalem and establish a powerful king- dom. In 586 BCE, however, the Jewish people were con- quered and exiled to Babylonia, where early Judaism started to take on some of the characteristics of modern Judaism. After the Persian conquest in 539 BCE, the Is- raelites were allowed to return to their homeland. Over the next 500 years Judaism was influenced by Greek, and later Roman, culture as these western empires conquered parts of the Middle East.

The basic doctrine of early Judaism centered on the belief that God created the universe and is its sole ruler. God’s word and commandments were revealed to his peo- ple in the writings known as the Torah, the teachings of which had been revealed to the prophet Moses on Mt. Sinai when the early Semites migrated back from Egypt. The Jewish people believed that a covenant, or berith, ex- isted between them and God that stemmed from a promise God made to their ancestors at Sinai. According to that covenant, if the Jewish people acknowledged God as their sole leader and obeyed his laws, he would make them his chosen people and watch over them. God also promised to send his Messiah to offer redemption and re- store Jews to the Holy Land. Eventually, the concept of Messianic redemption led to the belief that individuals could hasten the Messiah’s arrival by strictly adhering to God’s commandments.

The first evidence of Judaism’s spread toward Africa occurred in the fourth century BCE when it was estab- lished as a valid religion at ALEXANDRIA, the new Ptole- maic capital of Greek Egypt. An important Mediterranean trade center, Alexandria was influenced by all aspects of Greek society, and contact with other Greek trading cen- ters in Egypt facilitated the spread of Judaism to the African coast.

However, the founding of present-day ETHIOPIA con- tends that Queen MAKEDA(the queen of Sheba), ruler of the kingdom of AKSUM, gave birth to a son, Menelik, who was fathered by King Solomon of Israel. MENELIK I in- terned with his father in Israel and then returned to Aksum with approximately 100 children borne by Israel’s elite. The young Israelites are reported to have brought 134 Juba I

with them the ARK OF THE COVENANT, which was pur- portedly kept at the church of St. Mary’s of Zion in the city of Aksum.

Prior to this the PHOENICIANS established port towns along the African coastline as they joined the Greeks in de- veloping Mediterranean trade. Historical evidence indi- cates the Phoenicians originally may have come from Palestine, the land occupied by the Israelites, thus linking their ancestors to the Jews. Some of the larger Phoenician settlements were established in present-day TUNISIA, a fer- tile agricultural area inhabited by the Berber people. The BERBERSprovided food for the Phoenicians in exchange for Mediterranean products, and, in the process of establishing this trade relationship, many of the Berbers integrated as- pects of the Phoenician’s Semitic culture into their own.

By 65 BCE the Hebrew kingdom of Judea had come under control of the Roman Empire. Around the same time, the HORN OF AFRICAand southern Arabia emerged as important sources of frankincense and myrrh, aromatic resins that were important for Roman funeral pyres and perfumes. As Roman trade increased, Judaism spread through these coastal communities. In 70 CEthe Romans destroyed Judea, forcing Jews to migrate to new lands. Many settled in Egypt and North Africa, allowing Judaism to penetrate as far inland as the Sahara Oasis. It was dur- ing this period that Judaism fully developed into its mod- ern rabbinic form, with emphasis on the role of study, prayer, and religious observance in personal salvation.

See also:BETA ISRAEL(Vols. I, II, III, IV, V); CARTHAGE (Vol. I); CHRISTIANITY, INFLUENCE OF (Vols. II, III); ISLAM (Vols. II, III); MONOTHEISM(Vol. I);PTOLEMIES(Vol. I).

Further reading: Mark Juergensmeyer, ed., Global

Religions: An Introduction (New York: Oxford University

Press, 2003); David Klinghoffer, The Discovery of God:

Abraham and the Birth of Monotheism (New York:

Doubleday, 2003); Niels Peter Lemche, Historical Dictionary

of Ancient Israel (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2004).

Jugurtha

(160 –104 BCE) Militant king of Numidia;

grandson of Massinissa (c. 238 –148 BCE)

King Jugurtha struggled not only to gain the throne but also to free NUMIDIA from the Roman domination under which MASINISSAhad placed it. After the death of Masinissa’s successor, King Micipsa, in 118 BCE, Numidia was divided among his heirs, who included Micipsa’s two sons and Jugurtha. Eager to gain even more power, Jugurtha soon managed to have one of his rivals, Hiempsal, killed. The other, Adherbal, was forced to take refuge in ROME. Swayed by a personal appearance by Jugurtha, the Romans divided Numidia between the remaining two heirs.

Mistakenly believing that he had Rome’s full support, in 112 BCE Jugurtha attacked Adherbal, and, in the pro- cess of achieving victory, massacred a number of Roman citizens. Incensed, the Roman Senate declared war on Jugurtha. Jugurtha, however, proved himself an able mili- tary leader, using Numidia’s desert terrain to avoid major pitched battles and, in general, humiliating the Roman forces. A peace settlement in 111 BCEthat greatly favored Jugurtha failed to satisfy the Numidian leader, and war was resumed quickly. Once again, however, Jugurtha managed to defeat the Romans, effectively ending their control of Numidia by 110 BCE.

Ultimately Rome could no longer bear Jugurtha’s re- bellion, and, under Gaius Marius, a new Roman offensive was begun in 107 BCE. Initially Jugurtha was able to re- peat his early successes against the Romans, but Marius eventually won the support of King Bocchus I of MAURITA- NIA, Jugurtha’s father-in-law, whose betrayal led to Ju- gurtha’s capture in 105 BCE. Taken to Rome, the Numidian king was subjected to a series of public humiliations and died there in 104 BCE.

Further reading:C. Sallustius Crispus, Rome and

Jugurtha, J. R. Hawthorn, ed. (Chicago: Bolchazy-Carducci,

1984).

ka

In ancient Egyptian religion, the spiritual double of every person and the source of his or her life powers. Ancient Egyptian beliefs held that the spirit, or soul, of a person consisted of three parts: the ka, the BA, and the ankh. Egyptians believed that at each person’s birth, the god Khnum created that person’s ka. Upon death, a person was said to have “gone to his or her ka.” The ka needed a body in order to survive, however. As a result, if the deceased was not mummified or if the deceased’s mummy decom- posed, the spiritual double was thought to die and the de- ceased lost the chance for eternal life. Egyptians saw the ka as the origin and giver of all that is desirable, especially eternal life. The ka also was believed to act as a protecting spirit, guarding the deceased against dangers found in the AFTERLIFE.

According to tradition, most mortals had a single ka. Kings, however, were thought to have multiple kas. The great pharaoh RAMESSES II(r. c. 1304 –1237 BCE), for exam- ple, was reputed to believe that he had more than 20 kas. Gods also had kas, and Egyptians worshiped the deities’

kas in order to receive favors. OSIRIS, for example, was known as the ka of the PYRAMIDS. In HIEROGLYPHICS, ka was represented as two raised arms bent upward at the elbow.

Kadesh

Ancient Syrian city on the Orontes River and, for many years, a major crossroads of the trade routes in western Syria. During the early 14th century BCEKadesh was the scene of conflict between EGYPT and one of its main Asian rivals, the HITTITES. During the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh SETI I(r. c. 1318–c. 1304 BCE), Kadesh was captured and brought under Egyptian rule. The Hittites, however, soon advanced on Kadesh and gained

control of the city, which they considered to be sacred. For the remainder of Seti’s reign, Kadesh remained in the hands of the Hittites, whose home region was located in a region of what is today the country of Turkey.

Around 1300 BCE, just four years after succeeding to his father’s throne, the young pharaoh RAMESSES IIset out to reconquer Kadesh. However, misinformation from captured spies led the pharaoh into a trap. Ramesses II and a force of 20,000 Egyptian soldiers soon found themselves sur- rounded by a Hittite army. The rest of the Egyptian army ar- rived, however, and drove off the Hittites. Ramesses II claimed victory, even putting a victory inscription on the Temple ofKARNAK. Historians, however, believe the battle actually ended in a truce.

Kalahari Desert

Arid desert region that stretches over the central plains of southern Africa, covering parts of BOTSWANA, NAMIBIA, and SOUTH AFRICA. The Kalahari region is mostly sandy and lacks surface water, but it is heavily vegetated with brush and low grasslands. The occasional rainfall creates viable grazing areas and collects in basins that support an abundance of wildlife, including wilde- beest, ELEPHANTS, GIRAFFES, gnus, ZEBRAS, and springbok. For hundreds of years prior to the great BANTU EXPANSION (c. 1000 BCE–c. 500 CE), the inhospitable Kalahari was in- habited by the !KUNG San, a group of HUNTER-GATHERERS who called themselves the Zhun/twasi, or “the real people.”

As the Bantu speakers migrated, the harsh environ- ment of the Kalahari prevented easy passage through the region, and the !Kung therefore remained the sole inhabi- tants of its interior. They were masters of the desert envi- ronment, developing a thorough knowledge of the local JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ

K

Kashta 137 flora and fauna. Though they occasionally killed large

mammals for their meat and hides, more often they sur- vived on edible roots and berries, baobab fruits, and mon-

gongo nuts. Their diet was supplemented with meat from

birds, including FLAMINGOS and geese, and reptiles, in- cluding lizards and CROCODILES.

The Kalahari, which covers nearly 360,000 square miles (232,400 sq km), contains the Okavango Delta to the north and the Makgadikgadi SALTpans to the northwest.

See also:GEOGRAPHY(Vol. I); KALAHARI DESERT(Vol. II).

Further reading: Pieter Van der Walt and Elias le Riche, The Kalahari and its Plants (Pretoria, South Africa: Info Naturae, 1999).

kandake

Title of supreme royalty held by the ruling queens of ancient KUSH. During its Meroitic Period, Kush had a number of queens who held the title of kandake, meaning “queen mother.” Reigning by themselves or in conjunction with their husbands or sons, the kandakes ruled from royal courts at Napata or MEROËor from the temples established at Musawarat es-Safra. Shankiakhete (r. c. 170 – c. 160 BCE) was one of the earliest known kan-

dakes. She was followed by Amanishakhete (r. c. 45 BCE) and Amanirenas (r. c. 24 BCE). In addition to being rulers and warriors, kandakes often served as priestesses for the Egyptian god AMUN, as well as for the goddesses ISISand Nut. In addition, the kandakes were highly influential in both local and national matters, and their duties even in- cluded presiding over coronation ceremonies.

JJJJJJJJJJJJJ

Reliefs and sculptures give dramatic portrayals of the kandakes’ role as warriors and military leaders. During Greco-Roman times, one of the most cele- brated kandakes was Amanirenas. About 24 BCE, she led her soldiers against Kush’s Roman over- lords, engaging the enemy at ASWAN, 70 miles (112 km) north of Kush’s border with EGYPT. There she defeated three units of the Roman army. In a sym- bolic gesture, she decapitated a statue of Augustus Caesar and buried the head of the statue in the doorway of a public building. After this act of defi- ance, Amanirenas supposedly led her troops further into the interior of Kush before finally being cap- tured at Primis (Qasr/Brim).

JJJJJJJJJJJJJ

Karnak, Temple of

Modern Arabic name for the site of an elaborate series of temples, the largest and most spec- tacular of which was dedicated to the god AMUN. Karnak is

located on the east bank of the NILE RIVER, near the an-

cient city of Thebes. Covering more than 200 acres (80 ha), the religious complex includes not only temples and chapels, but also obelisks, columns, and statues. Con- struction of the site was undertaken by a succession of pharaohs and went on for thousands of years. One of the many impressive features of the site’s ARCHITECTUREis a

series of monumental gateways called pylons.

Built during the MIDDLE KINGDOM (c. 1991– c. 1668 BCE), Karnak was originally the site of a modest shrine to

Amun. But the rulers of the NEW KINGDOM(c. 1570 – 1085 BCE) expanded the scope of the temple complex by enlarg-

ing it into three sections. The pharaohs who contributed to its basic development during the Eighteenth Dynasty were THUTMOSE I, Queen Hatshepsut, and THUTMOSE III.

Their work was continued on an even grander scale by the Nineteenth Dynasty pharaohs SETI Iand RAMESSES II.

The Temple at Karnak was at the heart of Egyptian

RELIGION, and the ancient Egyptians regarded it as a na-

tional shrine, calling it ipet-isut, of “the most revered of places.” They were dazzled by its magnificent architectural monuments and by the great wealth and power of the priests dedicated to the service of the supreme god Amun. The faithful made Karnak the focus of their devotion to the god. The Opet festival, a yearly celebration held in honor of Amun, was one of the most important religious events to take place there. During the festival, the image of Amun was carried in solemn procession from his great temple to the banks of the Nile. Amid much public rejoic- ing, the image was then transported on a barge to the tem- ple at LUXOR, where it remained for several weeks before

being returned to Karnak with similar solemnity.

Further reading: Alberto Siliotti, Luxor, Karnak, and the Theban Temples (New York: American University in Cairo Press, 2002).

Kash (Kasu)

Name used for the ancient kingdom of

KUSHand its inhabitants. Kash was the Egyptian name for

Kush during the MIDDLE KINGDOM(c. 2040 – c. 1820 BCE),

when Kush was considered a province of EGYPT. Kasu was

the term generally used by King Ezana of AKSUM, who

sent armies to destroy the Kushites about 350 CE. It is

widely assumed that the major battle of Ezana’s invasion took place at the capital city of MEROËat the junction of

the Atbara and Nile rivers.

Further reading: Derek A. Welsby, The Kingdom of Kush: The Napatan and Meroitic Empires (Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener, 1998).

Kashta

(r. c. 806 –750 BCE) Early king of Napata in the kingdom of Kush

For hundreds of years KUSH had been dominated by EGYPT, but by the Twenty-first Dynasty (c. 1070–945 BCE),

Egyptian power had begun to decline. As time passed the Kush kingdom’s trading links propelled it to economic prominence, and the area began to assert its autonomy. Ultimately an independent kingdom was established at Napata, and under King Kashta’s guidance, plans were made to invade Egypt.

Just how successful Kashta’s invasion was is unclear, but it was not long before Kashta’s sons, PIANKHY (r. c. 750–c. 716 BCE) and Shabako (r. c. 716–c. 701 BCE), com- pleted Kush’s conquest of Egypt. After this, a succession of Napatan kings ruled in Egypt as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, holding power over the country as a whole for 50 years and over UPPER EGYPTfor more than 100 years. This period represented the height of power for Kushite kings, who ruled a kingdom that extended from present-day KHAR- TOUM to the MEDITERRANEAN SEA. Beginning about 663 BCE, ASSYRIAN invasions forced a Kushite retreat, but it is clear that their occupation of the area left a mark on cus- toms, RELIGION, and ARCHITECTUREin both lands.

Kei River

River emptying into the Indian Ocean on the Eastern Cape of SOUTH AFRICA; also known as the Great Kei River. Although not a particularly large river, the Kei was important geographically to the region’s IRON AGE residents. Since the weather north of the Kei River was far more suitable for agriculture than the climate to the south, the river formed a kind of southern border, sepa- rating one region from another. As a result the area north of the Kei, which was marked by summer rainfall, ulti- mately became the home of many SAN- and Bantu-speak- ing farmers and CATTLEherders.

Kemet

Ancient Egyptian word for EGYPT. Ancient Egyp- tians called their land Kemet, or Kmt, which meant “black land,” after the fertile, silt-layered soil left behind during the annual flooding of the NILE RIVER. Black land was distinguished from the surrounding red land

(DESHRET), so-called because of the reddish-yellow color of the sands. By the time of the ancient Greeks, however, this meaning had been transformed, since, according to some authorities, the Greeks referred to Kemet as the “Land of the Blacks.”

Kemet in 2000 BCE covered nearly 400,000 square miles (1,000,000 sq km). Districts were divided into

nomes, and the entire region was divided into two halves:

UPPER EGYPTand LOWER EGYPT. Upper Egypt, to the south, was also known as the NILE VALLEY, and it was made up of a narrow valley on either side of the NILE RIVER. Lower Egypt, located to the north and also known as the NILE DELTA, was the place where the Nile River split before reaching the MEDITERRANEAN SEA.

A vulture symbol was traditionally used to represent Upper Egypt; a COBRAsymbol signified Lower Egypt. The

two areas were quite different; they were separate king- doms before the reign of MENESabout 3100 BCE.

Kenya

East African country approximately 224,900 square miles (582,491 sq km) in size located along the Indian Ocean coast of East Africa and sharing borders with ETHIOPIA, the Republic of the SUDAN, UGANDA, TAN- ZANIA, and SOMALIA.

Archaeologists have found evidence that supports the claim that Kenya and its neighbors along the RIFT VALLEY supported early hominids. Archaeological finds from the OLDUVAI GORGE on the present-day Kenya-Tanzania bor- der show that hominids lived in the region more than 2 million years ago. Many of these discoveries were made by Louis Leakey and his family, who have served Kenya as archaeologists and museum curators.

Cushitic-speaking groups migrated into the area from 2000 to 1000 BCEand between 500 BCEand 500 CE, Bantu-

In document Módulo Base para Todo Tipo de Finca - Módulo Base para Cultivos - Frutas y Hortalizas (página 46-55)