Capítulo 8 La carrera docente en el Perú
3. Mejorando la carrera docente en el Perú Análisis y propuesta
Frontline advice and services to farmers are provided by private veterinary practitioners with regulatory services provided by State Departments of Primary Industries. There are standing committee arrangements for coordination of animal health matters that include all State Governments, CSIRO and DAFF.
Peak body and R,D&E services include:
› Animal Health Australia is an organisation with membership comprised of all the state and Australian governments and the peak animal industry
organisations. It has a coordinating role for Emergency Animal Disease (EAD) management and also
coordinates activities in nominated areas of endemic diseases eg Johne’s disease in all species
› Universities undertaking research and training
› Veterinary laboratory services provided by a mixture of state and private organisations and there are national arrangements to coordinate quality control for specific testing regimes.
Animal health priorities
› Closer engagement between dairy industry organisations and DPIs in planning and rehearsing surveillance and control programs for EADs
› A communication/extension strategy aimed at increasing uptake of Biosecurity practices on dairy farms. This needs to also target advisors, stock agents and other influential individuals to ensure that farmers are getting consistent advice
› Monitoring vaccination levels for Leptospirosis and Q Fever
› Encouragement for farmers to be vaccinated for Q Fever and to vaccine their cattle for Leptospirosis
› Establish the economic impact of Pestivirus (BVDV) infection in the Australian dairy industry
› Evaluate the impact of hygienic calf rearing on the occurrence of BJD
› Implement the Herd Environment Culture test for assessing the BJD status of dairy farms
› A communication strategy that advises farmers about the causes of recumbent (downer) cows, tools available to assess the likely outcome for individual cases and, if treatment is to be attempted, strategies for humane, effective management of cases
› Develop a system to get more accurate information about on-farm disease incidence (not limited to animals treated by veterinarians, but rather including all disease incidents treated by dairy farmers as well
as veterinarians on-farm and find out what steps farmers are undertaking to control these diseases) and management
Emergency Animal Disease (EAD) Preparedness
Emergency animal diseases such as Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) and BSE (“Mad cow disease”) have the potential to cause devastating effects on the Australian dairy industry and there is a huge investment in surveillance aimed at early detection and a prompt response to any exotic or emerging disease outbreak. The primary responsibility for these activities rests with state departments of primary industries supported by Animal Health Australia.
The Australian dairy industry is very fortunate that many cattle diseases are not present in this country as this saves the costs associated with control and secures markets that would not otherwise be available. The Emergency Animal Disease Response Agreement (EADRA) is a contractual arrangement that brings together the commonwealth, state and territory governments and the livestock industries to collectively and significantly increase Australia’s capacity to prepare for, and respond to, Emergency Animal Disease (EAD) incursions. The EADRA is a world-first initiative and Animal Health Australia is its custodian.
The Emergency Animal Disease Response Agreement (EADRA) lists the animal diseases that have been identified as needing an Emergency Animal Disease Response Plan and being eligible for cost sharing arrangements in the event of an outbreak. The Emergency Animal Diseases listed in this agreement are primarily exotic to Australia but can also include specified endemic diseases such as Anthrax under certain conditions such as a major outbreak. The diseases are placed in four categories on the basis of the risk they pose to human health and the severity of the socio-economic disruption to trade if they were to be introduced (exotic diseases) or to cause a major outbreak eg Anthrax. While there are many diseases that are not present in Australia it is considered that the risk assessment issues are generic in that the key activities relate to:
› disease surveillance to ensure early detection
› improved sharing of information from surveillance activities
› the thoroughness of planning to prevent an incursion, and
› planning to reduce the impact of an outbreak should an exotic disease be introduced.
In considering EADs it is important to remember that there is potential for emerging animal diseases to occur in dairy herds. Such diseases may not previously have been observed or could be a disease that has been described in cattle or other species but, for reasons that are not clear, may begin to spread to cattle herds. There is always the possibility that an emerging disease may also infect people. Gaps in Knowledge
› The major EADs of interest to Australia are subject to R&D programs and the Australian Animal Health Laboratory is active in supporting issues of importance to Australia either in collaboration with other countries or in the high security laboratories in Geelong. These projects are aimed at filling knowledge gaps in diagnostic capability and improving understanding of the epidemiology of diseases of interest
› Surveillance. Departments of Primary Industries have primary responsibility for conducting surveillance activities but can only be effective if they are supported by the farming and veterinary communities. At the DMF Workshop for Strategy 3 the view was expressed that there was poor knowledge of the extent of disease in Australian dairy herds and that this was sufficiently serious to, potentially, put the industry at risk. It was acknowledged that there is a substantial level of surveillance undertaken (formally and informally) by different organisations but there is inadequate sharing of information especially with industry bodies. The existing surveillance initiatives are primarily based on disease incidents investigated by veterinarians but there is very little information on the level of disease conditions that are managed by farmers and rarely seen by veterinarians.
Gaps in Adoption of Animal Health Practices › Unknown levels of adoption of biosecurity practices. Current R,D&E
› Emergency Animal Disease – R&D at Australian Animal Health Laboratory. This work is focused on improving diagnostic tests and devising means to quickly scale up testing if necessary. This work also includes research and development on diseases such as foot and mouth disease in partner countries that are attempting to control or eradicate the disease
› DPI surveillance. The state DPIs undertake a number of surveillance projects including subsidising the cost of veterinary investigations and laboratory testing for unusual outbreaks of disease
› DAFF work with some veterinary practices to monitor the occurrence of animal diseases on client farms. (The Australian veterinary surveillance network)
› Animal Health Australia is also involved with a disease surveillance program including the National Animal Health Information System, National Arbovirus Monitoring Program, the TSE Freedom Assurance Program and the Australian Bovine Tuberculosis Surveillance Project
› Periodic simulation exercises
› Survey of Biosecurity compliance – currently being conducted by Dairy Australia.
Priorities for R,D&E Biosecurity
› Extension strategy for improving adoption of biosecurity measures
› Closer engagement between dairy industry organisations and DPIs in planning and rehearsing surveillance and control programs.
› Develop a system to get more accurate information about on-farm disease incidence (not limited to animals treated by veterinarians, but rather including all disease incidents treated by dairy farmers as well as veterinarians on-farm and find out what steps farmers are undertaking to control these diseases) and management.
Zoonotic disease
› Monitoring vaccination levels for Leptospirosis and Q Fever.
› Encouragement for farmers to be vaccinated for Q Fever and to vaccine their cattle for Leptospirosis Infectious disease
› A communication/extension strategy aimed at increasing uptake of BJD control measures on dairy farms.
Animal welfare
› Calf welfare, lameness and downer cows.
Animal Biosecurity
Management of EAD events is covered by an agreement between the state, territory and Australian governments and the peak industry councils of all the livestock industries. This EADRA agreement focuses, in particular, on managing the cost sharing arrangements in the event of an outbreak of an EAD. Part of the agreement requires the animal industries to be able to demonstrate that their farmers are implementing Biosecurity practices.
The Australian Dairy Farmers organisation has decided that effective management of seven key elements will minimise the risks of introducing infectious diseases, weeds, pests, toxic plants and residues:
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› Managing stock movements.
› Managing entry and movement of people and vehicles
› Managing introduction of farm inputs such as stockfeed, water and other inputs
› Managing risks from adjoining land and neighbours
› Managing animals to prevent occurrence and spread of disease
› Prompt and safe removal of dead animals
› Managing shed effluent and other farm waste
› Managing contact between wildlife and livestock to prevent the occurrence and spread of disease. Dairy Australia is currently examining the level of implementation of Biosecurity practices on dairy farms and is planning a strategy to ensure that farmers have access to the best advice on practical ways of assessing and managing their Biosecurity risks.
One of the concepts of Biosecurity is to manage the risks associated with visitors to dairy farms who have the potential to introduce infectious agents and/or weed seeds on their boots, clothing and vehicles. At present, a key element of the extension strategy is to have field days, discussion groups and other events on commercial dairy farms and, in general, no precautions are taken to reduce the risks of introducing disease agents or weeds on to the host farm or for participants to carry home unwelcome passengers. This lack of care (and/ or understanding) on the part of organisers needs to be addressed.
Gaps in Knowledge
› Understanding of the level of adoption of Biosecurity practices on Australian dairy farms
› Understanding of motivating factors that encourage farmer adoption of Biosecurity practices.
Current R,D&E
› Dairy Australia is currently undertaking a survey to explore the extent of adoption of Biosecurity practices on dairy farms.
Priorities for R,D&E
› A communication/extension strategy aimed at increasing uptake of Biosecurity practices on dairy farms. This needs to also target advisors, stock agents and other influential individuals to ensure that farmers are getting consistent advice.
Zoonotic disease
This category of disease includes a number of organisms that have the potential to cause food-borne illness in people. These include Salmonella, Camplylobacter, Cryptosporidia, Listeria, Giardia and E.coli. In general, the organisms are killed by pasteurising and dairy products manufactured from pasteurised milk can be regarded as safe if manufacturing, transport and retailing processes are of a sufficiently high standard to prevent post- pasteurisation contamination. Salmonella organisms also produce diarrhoeal diseases in calves and adult cattle and can be a source of infection for farm staff and visitors. Other organisms in this group can be transmitted to people by contact with diseased animals or, in some cases such as Leptospirosis and Q fever, the cattle may appear healthy but be secreting organisms that can infect animal handlers and cause serious disease. Anthrax is also been included in this group of zoonotic diseases because it does have the potential to infect people and, if the infection is not treated promptly and effectively, it can prove fatal.
Gaps in Knowledge
› The levels of vaccination of cattle with Leptospirosis and Salmonella vaccines
› The level of vaccination of the dairy farming community for Q Fever.
Gaps in Adoption of Animal Health Practices While the levels of vaccination are not known, it is probably safe to assume that they are less than desirable. It is recognised that the primary responsibility for promoting vaccination rests with the pharmaceutical companies but it is also in the interests of the dairy industry to reduce the occurrence of zoonotic diseases. It is, therefore, in the interests of the dairy industry to monitor vaccination levels and encourage the community to consider vaccination.
Current R,D&E
› Vaccine and veterinary therapeutics development by pharmaceutical companies.
Priorities for R,D&E
› Monitoring vaccination levels for Leptospirosis and Q Fever
› Encouragement for farmers to be vaccinated for Q Fever and to vaccine their cattle for Leptospirosis.
Infectious diseases
There are a very large number of infectious animal diseases that have the potential to cause productivity losses in the dairy industry. Some of these diseases such as calf scours and pinkeye are relatively common and are managed routinely by farmers. Some of the diseases are routinely prevented by vaccination and others only occur in specific regions. Other diseases such as Bovine Johne’s disease (BJD) and Enzootic Bovine Leucosis (EBL) are subject to more regulated control methods because there has been agreement between the industry and state governments that it is desirable to prevent spread of the disease and, in the case of EBL, to strive for eradication from the Australian dairy herd. Gaps in Knowledge
› Bovine Johne’s disease
– The effectiveness of implementing the three point calf rearing plan
– The effectiveness of vaccination for prevention of BJD
– Farmer attitudes to the importance of taking steps to control and prevent BJD.
› Enzootic Bovine Leucosis
– The level of EBL infection in beef cattle.
› Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus
– Farmer awareness of ways to minimise the impact of BVDV/Pestivirus infection on their properties.
– Knowledge of the economic impact of BVDV/ Pestivirus infection on Australian dairy farms. Gaps in Adoption of Animal Health Practices › Farmer attitudes to BJD control measures Current R,D&E
› Test and Control program – DPI Victoria
› Implementation of herd tests for BJD assurance
› Promotion of the benefits of risk based trading for BJD
› Assessment of the herd environmental test for determining the occurrence of BJD.
Priorities for R,D&E
› A communication/extension strategy aimed at increasing uptake of BJD control measures on dairy farms.
Metabolic diseases
These diseases occur when the diet of animals is deficient in one or more essential ingredients or the metabolism of the animal is temporarily changed in a way that precipitates adverse clinical changes or death. In summary the most important metabolic disease are:
› Milk fever. This condition occurs frequently in older cows in the peri-parturient period and can lead to sudden collapse and death if untreated. Prompt treatment is usually effective but maintaining vigilance and treating animals can be very time consuming
› Grass tetany. Basically, this condition occurs when animals are getting insufficient magnesium. The onset is generally unpredictable and can lead to acute, subacute and chronic forms of the disease. Sudden deaths are often the first sign of the disease. Prompt treatment can be effective and the disease can be prevented by daily supplementation of cows at risk
› Ketosis. A general term for a range of disorders that occur in ruminants when they have demands on their resources for glucose and glycogen that cannot be met by their digestive and metabolic activity. Primary ketosis occurs most often in the first month of lactation in well- conditioned cows with high milk yield potential
› Bloat. Bloat is a frequent cause of sudden death in animals that have recently been put into a new paddock with a high legume content. Prompt treatment can be successful and the condition can be prevented by the use of slow release rumen capsules or daily dosing with anti-bloating chemicals
› Acidosis. The usual cause is considered to be
consumption of diets with high levels of rapidly fermentable carbohydrates and low levels of fibre. The extent is unknown but some commentators consider that sub-acute acidosis is widespread
› Polioencephalomalacia. Most commonly occurs as a sudden onset of nervous signs in young (6-18 months) cattle that have been fed concentrate feeds under intensive conditions. Parenteral treatment with thiamine is generally effective when delivered early in the course of the disease but it is not clear whether this is a primary thiamine deficiency.
Gaps in Knowledge
› The occurrence of these diseases
› The adoption levels of preventive measures such as transition feeding
› The ability to predict occurrence of Grass Tetany. Current R,D&E
› Development of strategies for transition feeding cows. This topic is included in the Feedbase Program.
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Welfare Issues
The major animal health issue that has the potential to compromise the welfare of dairy cattle is the occurrence and management of recumbent (downer) cows. A report commissioned by Dairy Australia defined the condition as “…cows and heifers unable to stand after 3 hours of recumbency following treatment”. This and other reports have noted that between 3 and 5 % of adult cows die each year and many of them would have a period of recumbency before death. The report on downer cows discussed the causes as follows:
“A rule of thumb would be that 90% of downer cows occur within a week of calving and 90% of downer cows follow the recumbency caused by either milk fever or dystocia. Milk fever occurs mainly in mature cows, dystocia occurs mainly in heifers. The other 10% of downer cows are caused by diseases such as pregnancy toxaemia, traumatic injury, grain poisoning and toxic mastitis.”
This report notes that downer cows are sometimes managed in a way that compromises the welfare of the animal and, when the animals are managed in view of the public, they produce a poor image for the industry. For this reason the management of downer cows has been an important focus of the animal welfare program. Gaps in Knowledge
› The effectiveness of preventive strategies for Downer Cows
› The ability to make an early assessment of the prognosis for Downer Cows.
Gaps in Adoption of Animal Health Practices › Knowledge about the causes of downer cows
› Information on systems that will allow farmers to quickly assess the prognosis for individual downer cows in order to allow them to assess management options
› The costs and benefits of management options for downer cows.
Current R,D&E
› Dairy Australia and the University of Melbourne are currently designing a proposal that is expected to identify the causes of downer cows in Gippsland and that will provide tools to allow farmers to assess the prognosis of individual cases.
Priorities for R,D&E
› A communication strategy that advises farmers about the causes of downer cows, tools available to assess the likely outcome for individual cases and, if treatment is to be attempted, strategies for humane, effective management of cases.
Human capability
› It is very difficult to recruit experienced veterinarians to work in rural practice
› It is also difficult for DPIs to recruit experienced veterinarians to work in rural Australia
› The majority of veterinarians are not interested in undertaking higher studies in farm animal medicine