Psychological factors have been represented by several constructs. Table 2.7 provides a summary of some relevant studies. Among the relevant factors in this category are
represented by antecedents such as General Perception and Attitude, Beliefs and Values, Motivation, Cognitive Structures, Trust/Confidence, Neophobia, Anxiety, Perceived Quality, Perceived Benefits, Perceived Healthiness, Perceived Risk, Perceived Susceptibility,
Perceived Safety, Perceived Pleasantness, and Perception about Technology used in Functional Food production, (Kaur and Singh, 2017).
Table 2-7 Summary of Selected Studies that Include Psychological Factors
Antecedent Selected author(s) Key Results General Perception and Attitude Schnettler et al., (2016) Positive
The study on university students’ satisfaction with food-related life reveals the antecedent of general perception significantly affects positive attitudes towards functional foods (with a prior assumption that attitudes towards functional foods are not homogeneous among consumers).
Hung et al., (2017)
Positive
The result implies the consumers’ motivation and ability to process health claims on food products as well as attitudinal and cognitive determinants positively impacted by the general perception and attitude.
Beliefs and Values Ding, Veeman, and Adamowicz (2015) Positive
Belief and value positively significant as determinants of consumers’ choices of functional canola oil products with enhanced omega-3 content. In particular, negative perceptions of such food are offset by both generalized trust and trust in the food system. The purchase of functional foods is more likely for consumers with a positive belief in internal control over their health. Motivation Siegrist et al., (2015) Positive
A comparative study using samples of consumer from Germany and China. It investigates the consumers’ willingness to buy functional foods. The study reveals that consumer from both countries with higher motivation on health tend to have a positive trust in the food industry.
35 Cognitive Structures Barrena and Sanchez (2010) Positive
Using a means–end chain approach, the study investigates the consumer cognitive structure of a functional food among two different categories of household structure, (i.e. children vs. no children). The result suggests that households with children having a higher degree of abstraction in the cognitive structure. A stronger confidence‐ seeking tendency is also confirmed by the result. Trust/ Confidenc e Annunziata et al., (2016) Positive
A multivariate analysis on the investigation of behaviour of the parent’s choice to purchase functional foods for their children confirms the positive effect of trust as one of the significant factors.
Neophobia Siegrist et al., (2015) .
Negative
The result suggests that a higher food neophobia among consumer in China significantly and negatively impacts on the acceptance of functional foods and beverages
Anxiety Koteyko (2010) Negative
The study confirms the negative elements of diseases explained by health anxiety significantly influence the motivation towards the consumption of probiotic products as a preventative measure. Tu et al., (2012) Negative
The assessment of cultural influence on belief and attitude towards functional soy foods evidenced the negative impact of anxiety towards the consumption.
Perceived Quality Jezewska and Krolak (2015) Positive
Using the Food Technology Neophobia Scale (FTNS), Perceived Quality is proven as one of the significant factors that positively impact the willingness to eat cereal products fortified with fibre. Perceived
Benefits
Dobrenova et al., (2015)
Positive
The ingredient healthiness perception roles as a Perceived Benefit, positively affects consumer acceptance on functional foods. It is delivered through the promotion of functional ingredients and functional foods of Japanese products with probiotics.
Cazacu et al., (2014)
Positive
The nutritional benefits are one of the factors to positively impact the purchase intention of water buffalo milk products in Greece. The study utilised Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) as its framework.
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Rezai et al., (2014)
Positive
The study utilised a structural equation modelling in an investigation of the influencing factors of purchase synthetic functional foods in Malaysia. The results from 2004 respondents reveals that the most significant factor to positively impact the purchase intention is perceived benefits followed by attitude and subjective norms. Perceived Healthines s Hung et al., (2017) Positive
The data collection from ten European countries: United Kingdom, Germany, The Netherlands, Spain, Slovenia, Czech Republic, France, Denmark, Greece, and Lithuania were used to assess the impact of health claim to the purchase of food products. With respondents of n = 5337, the result suggests that Perceived Healthiness provide a significant positive impact to the purchase intention. Perceived Safety Marina et al., (2014) Positive
The investigation of the buying behaviour and attitudes of young consumers (18-30 years old) suggests that Perceived Safety of functional foods has a positive impact. In particular, the study indicates that the belief of elements of healthier and safer to the functional foods than other products produce a significant positive result. Perceived Pleasantne ss Vassallo et al., (2009) Positive
The study assesses consumer willingness to use functional breads across four European countries. Perceived pleasantness is proven to provide positive impact as a predictor of such behaviour. Important findings from this study suggests that consumer view functional food product that associated with health claim to lower risk of diseases as just an ordinary food domain rather than alternatives to medicines. Perception about Technolog y La Barbera et al., (2016) Positive
The scales of assessment were taken from Food Technology Neophobia Scales (FTNS) for tomatoes enriched with lycopene. The positive results of willingness to pay for the functional food product, indicate that the technology together with a high level of knowledge are very effective.
Perceived Risk Rezai et al., (2014) Negative
Perceived Risk is the manifestation of both perceived susceptibility and perceived severity from the Health Belief Model (HBM) constructs. The result suggests the consumer’s intention to consume synthetic functional foods were significantly affected by the negative elements explained by the Perceived Risk.
37 Perceived Susceptibil ity Vassallo et al., (2009) Negative
The result shows the negative elements in the Perceived Susceptibility of the Health Belief Model (HBM) significantly affect the consumer’s willingness to use functional breads.
The Psychological Factor of General Perception and Attitude were investigated in many studies related to consumer behaviour towards healthy food, which among others include functional foods. Among the studies that produce a significant positive impacts of General Perception towards the consumption of functional foods, including by Schnettler and Grunert (2016), Hung et al., (2016), van der Zanden et al., (2015), Gajdos et al., (2015), Jezewska and Krolak (2015), Salleh et al., (2015), Büyükkaragoz et al., (2014), Marina et al., (2014), Cazacu et al., (2014), Tobin et al., (2014), Bechtold and Abdulai (2014), Ong et al., (2014), Rezai et al., (2014), Spiroski et al., (2013), Hirogaki (2013), Lau et al., (2012), Cornish (2012), and Carrillo et al., (2013). The positive impact of General Perception and Attitude in many previous recent studies implies that this factor can be used further in other contexts of investigation related to consumer behaviour towards functional foods.
Other Psychological Factors described in Table 2.7 also include Beliefs and Values. The related studies that employed this factor, found that it had a positive impact on consumer intentions. For example, Ding, Veeman, and Adamowicz (2015), found Belief and Value had a significant positive role as a determinant of consumer choice of functional canola oil products with enhanced omega-3 content. Other studies with positive results include Kraus (2015a, b), Hassan (2011a), Hassan (2011b), Pothoulaki and Chryssochoidis (2009), Verbeke (2006), Verbeke (2005).
The Psychological Factor of Motivation in functional food studies has revealed a positive impact on consumer intentions. This finding similarly obtained by Siegrist et al., (2015), Jezewska and Krolak (2015), Kraus (2015a, b), Brecic et al., (2014), Messina et al., (2008), Cornish (2012), Sparke and Menrad (2009), Krystallis et al., (2008), Ares and Gambaro (2007).
Studies that have included the Psychological Factors of Cognitive Structures have also revealed signs of a positive impact. For example, Barrena and Sanchez (2010)
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towards the consumption of functional foods. The findings indicate positive results in both categories. Another positive outcome results also evidenced by Krystallis et al., (2008).
Next, the Psychological Factor of Trust/Confidence has been utilised by Siegrist et al., (2015), Annunziata et al., (2016), Dolgopolova et al., (2015), Gajdos et al., (2015), Ding et al., (2015), Spiroski et al., (2013), Loizou et al., (2013), Lalor et al., (2011a), Barrena and Sanchez (2010), Annunziata and Vecchio (2010), Pothoulaki and Chryssochoidis (2009), Sparke and Menrad (2009), Urala and Lahteenmaki (2007) and Siegrist et al., (2008). For example, Annunziata et al., (2016) suggested that Trust/ Confidence positively affects the parent’s choice to purchase functional foods for their children. Hence, it can be concluded that further assessment of this factor to various types of functional foods may necessary.
Studies that have included the Psychological Factor of Neophobia have revealed that it has a negative impact on the consumption of healthy food. These studies include La Barbera et al., (2016), Stratton et al., (2015), Siegrist et al., (2015), Jezewska and Krolak (2015), Dolgopolova et al., (2015), Menezes et al., (2011), Siegrist et al., (2008). Therefore, future studies should look into this psychological barrier and to find a solution to minimize the impact of neophobia.
A summary of the impact of the Psychological Factor of Anxiety on the consumption of functional foods has been included in some studies. These include Tu et al., (2012), and Koteyko (2010). The summary is described in Table 2.7. The study by Koteyko (2010) confirmed the negative impact of disease explained by health anxiety significantly influences the motivation towards the consumption of probiotic products.
Studies that have investigated the Psychological Factor of Perceived Quality reveal both positive and negative results impacted on consumer behaviour. Table 2.7 summarises the results of selected studies by Kraus (2015a, b), Jezewska and Krolak (2015), Loizou et al., (2013), Markovina et al., (2011), Krystallis et al., (2008), and Cox et al., (2004).
Interestingly, positive results have been obtained utilising Perceived Benefits in several consumer behaviour studies as summarised in Table 2.7. Among the studies that have found a positive impact is that of Dobrenova et al., (2015). The findings suggest that the perceived benefit of ingredient healthiness positively affects the promotion of functional
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ingredients and functional foods of Japanese products with probiotic properties. Other studies with positive results include Cazacu et al., (2014), Annunziata and Vecchio (2010), Labrecque et al., (2006), Rezai et al., (2014), Markosyan et al., (2009), Verbeke (2006), Lyly et al., (2007) and Niva and Makela (2007). Such positive results of Perceived Benefits indicated that this factor is a significantly important determinant of the consumption of functional foods. Hence, the results suggest that further research on functional food should include the construct of Perceived Benefits.
An additional Psychological Factor is Perceived Healthiness. Table 2.7 summarises previous studies utilising this factor. Among the scholars that assessed this factor and found a positive impact are Hung et al., (2016), Hur and Jang (2015), Je zewska-Zychowicz and Krolak (2015), Rezai et al., (2014), Marina et al., (2014), Cornish (2012), Annunziata and Vecchio (2011), Saba et al., (2010), Vassallo et al., (2009), Ares and Gambaro (2007). In summary, Perceived Healthiness has a significant positive impact on the consumption of functional foods in several studies.
The Psychological Factor of Perceived Safety also provides significant positive results as indicate in Table 2.7. Such studies include Kraus (2015a, 2015b), Rezai et al., (2014), Marina et al., (2014), Urala and Lahteenmaki (2007), Wilcock et al., (2004), Urala and
Lahteenmaki (2003). In summary, Perceived Safety positively influences consumer intentions towards functional food.
Table 2.7 also summarises studies that have included the Psychological Factor of Perceived Pleasantness. These include Vassallo et al., (2009) and Krystallis et al., (2008). The results indicated that Perceived Pleasantness has a significant positive impact on the consumer. For example, Vassallo et al., (2009) suggested Perceived Pleasantness has a
positive impact on the consumption of functional breads. Such a positive result can be used to compare with other types of functional foods in future studies.
The assessment of the impact of Psychological Factors of Perception of Technology used in functional food production, was conducted by La Barbera et al., (2016), Masson et al., (2016), Bruschi et al., (2015), Jezewska and Krolak (2015), Krystallis and Chrysochou (2012). The results summarised in Table 2.7 indicate Perception of Technology has a positive impact on the consumption of functional foods.
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With respect to the Psychological Factor of Perceived Risk, the results suggest it has a significant negative impact. Table 2.7 summarises selected studies that have utilised this factor. These include studies by Rezai et al., (2014), Markosyan et al., (2009), Vassallo et al., (2009), O'Connor and White (2010), Niva and Makela (2007). For example, Rezai et al. (2014) found Perceived Risk associated with a certain disease, has s significant negative impact on the consumption of synthetic functional foods.
A similar outcome has been established in the case of the Psychological Factor of Perceived Susceptibility. For example, in Table 2.7, the assessment by Vassallo et al., (2009) found the Perceived Susceptibility of risk of disease has a significant negative effect on the consumption of functional bread. Therefore, Perceived Susceptibility is a relevant construct to be employed in further research into functional foods. Perceived Susceptibility is one of the main constructs in the Health Belief Model (HBM). A review of other constructs in the HBM is further discussed in Section 2.10.5.