th is c h a p te r I lo o k a t h o w c h ild h o o d c a n b e c o n s tr u c te d a s a n o p e n -e n d e d p r o c e s s o f e m e rg e n c e a n d b e c o m in g , b u t first, I d is c u s s so m e k ey i s s u e s a b o u t d o in g r e s e a r c h w ith c h ild re n .
D o in g r e s e a r c h w it h c h ild r e n
T h e re a re p a r t i c u l a r m e th o d o lo g ic al i s s u e s t h a t a ris e w h e n r e s e a r c h in g w ith c h ild r e n t h a t develop a s a d ir e c t r e s u l t of th e th e o re tic a l c o n c e r n s d is c u s s e d in th e p re v io u s se c tio n . P e r h a p s th e m o s t s ig n ific a n t in te lle c tu a l a n d e th ic a l c h a n g e t h a t h a s o c c u rre d a s r e s u l t o f th e p a ra d ig m a tic sh ift in c h ild h o o d s tu d ie s h a s b e e n th e re fra m in g o f r e s e a r c h so t h a t it is n o w c o n s id e re d to b e w ith a s o p p o s e d to o n c h ild re n (C h ris te n s e n 85 J a m e s 1999). R e s e a rc h w ith c h ild r e n ta k e s th e th e o re tic a l s t r a n d s o u tlin e d ab o v e a n d t r a n s l a t e s th e m in to r e s e a r c h p ra c tic e , so t h a t a d u lt r e s e a r c h e r s a n tic ip a te a n d w o rk w ith th e p a r tic u la r c o m p e te n c ie s a n d c u ltu r e s of th e ir c h ild p a rtic ip a n ts . M any a lso activ ely se e k to fa c ilita te c h ild r e n a n d y o u n g p e o p le ’s p a rtic ip a tio n in so m e , if n o t all, s ta g e s o f a r e s e a r c h p ro je c t. In th is se c tio n I e x p la in h o w th e s e id e a s w ere d e p lo y e d in m y o w n fieldw ork p ra c tic e .
S a m e o r d i f f e r e n t t o a d u l t s ?
H av in g e s ta b lis h e d t h a t c h ild r e n s h o u ld b e r e s p e c te d a n d tre a te d a s c o m p e te n t so c ia l a c to r s , o n e of th e m o s t im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n s t h a t a r e s e a r c h e r m u s t c o n s id e r is h o w fa r r e s e a r c h w ith c h ild re n is th e s a m e o r d iffe re n t fro m r e s e a r c h w ith a d u lts (C h ris te n s e n 85
J a m e s 2 0 0 0 ; M a n d ell 1991). F o r e x am p le , if c h ild re n o c c u p y th e so cially s t r u c tu r e d s p a c e s o f c h ild h o o d , in w h a t w a y s m ig h t th is m a k e th e ir life w o rld s so d iffe re n t to th o s e of a d u lts t h a t th e m e th o d s o f r e s e a r c h n e e d b e f u n d a m e n ta lly d iffe re n t? T h is is a n sig n ific a n t q u e s tio n to a d d r e s s a s it h a s im p lic a tio n s for every sta g e of a r e s e a r c h p ro je c t, from d e sig n to a n a ly s is . Som e r e s e a r c h e r s a rg u e t h a t c h ild re n a re in d is tin g u is h a b le fro m a d u lts , a n d t h a t th e s a m e m e th o d s s h o u ld be em p lo y ed w ith b o th (J a m e s
e t a l 1998). O th e rs s u g g e s t t h a t w h ile c h ild re n a re s im ila r to a d u lts , th e y p o s s e s s d iffe re n t c o m p e te n c ie s , m e a n in g m e th o d s s h o u ld b e a d a p te d to c h ild r e n ’s sk ills (N esb itt 2 0 0 0 ). P u n c h (2002) a rg u e s in fa v o u r of th e c o m b in a tio n of v is u a l, w ritte n a n d tra d itio n a l m e th o d s , a s th e s e will c re a te a n in te r e s tin g a n d e n jo y a b le r e s e a r c h e n v ir o n m e n t for th e c h ild re n , w h ic h will h e lp s u s ta i n th e ir i n te r e s t in th e fieldw ork w h ile allo w in g th e r e s e a r c h e r to b u ild r a p p o r t w ith th e ir p a r tic ip a n ts . T h e se m e th o d s , P u n c h s u g g e s ts , a re n o t n e c e s s a rily ‘c h ild ’ o r ‘a d u l t ’ m e th o d s , b u t r a t h e r th o s e w h ic h a re , follow ing r e a s o n a b le a n d reflexive c o n s id e r a tio n o f th e c o m p e te n c ie s a n d in te r e s ts of th e gro u p (s) b e in g r e s e a r c h e d , m o s t s u ita b le for a n in v e s tig a tio n of th e ir so c ia l w o rld s. A s C h a p te r 4 d e ta ils, th is is th e a p p ro a c h t h a t I a d o p te d .
In a d d itio n , I w o u ld a r g u e t h a t th e r e a re m a te ria l a s w ell a s so cial d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n c h ild r e n a n d a d u lts , a n d b e tw e e n c h ild re n of d iffe re n t a g e s. So c h ild r e n ’s c o m p e te n c ie s, fra m e w o rk s of u n d e r s ta n d in g , a n d i n te r e s ts a re , to a v a ry in g e x te n t, likely to be d iffe re n t to th o s e o f a d u lts . B u t th is d o e s n o t m e a n , a s a m a tte r of logical p r o g re s s io n , t h a t th e s e u n d e r s ta n d in g s a n d in v e s tm e n ts s h o u ld b e tr e a te d a s le s s im p o r ta n t o r s o c ia lly /c u ltu ra lly im m a tu r e in c o m p a ris o n . M oreover, th e a d u lt r e s e a r c h e r m u s t c o n s ta n tly q u e s tio n th e ir a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t th e ir c h ild p a r tic ip a n ts in o r d e r to av o id p ro je c tin g a d u lt- c e n tric id e a s o n to th e ir c o n d u c t, o r h o m o g e n is in g c h ild re n a s a c o h e r e n t r a t h e r th e n d iv e rse g ro u p (P u n c h 2 0 0 2 ). In d e e d , s u c h reflexivity is a c e n tr a l c o n c e p t (a n d I w o u ld a d d v ita l asp ec t) of q u a lita tiv e re s e a r c h , p a rtic u la rly e th n o g r a p h y (Coffey 1999). P ro u t a n d J a m e s (1990) c o n te n d t h a t e th n o g r a p h y is th e m o s t effective m e th o d for c o n d u c tin g r e s e a r c h w ith c h ild re n b e c a u s e it is a m e th o d t h a t fo re fro n ts a n d e m p h a s is e s th e ir u n d e r s ta n d in g s a n d in v e s tm e n ts , a n d I th in k t h a t th is is a s tro n g a rg u m e n t. T h ro u g h a n
e th n o g r a p h ic le n s , c h ild r e n ’s c o n d u c t c a n b e view ed in te r m s of s u b - c u ltu r a l p ra c tic e , w ith th e ir ow n s y s te m s o f v a lu e a n d r ite s of p a s s a g e . A k e y c o n c e rn fo r e th n o g r a p h e r s is h o w fa r a n d in w h a t w a y s th e y w is h to involve th e ir p a r tic ip a n ts in th e u n d e r ta k in g of th e r e s e a r c h .
P a r t n e r s h i p , p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d c o -r e s e a r c h
T h e re is a g ro w in g c o n c e rn w ith in c h ild h o o d s tu d ie s th a t, w h e n e v e r fe a sib le , c h ild r e n s h o u ld be in volved a s e ith e r activ e r e s e a r c h e r s , c o - r e s e a r c h e r s , o r p a r tn e r s , w o rk in g to g e th e r w ith a c a d e m ic s to c o n d u c t r e s e a r c h a b o u t th e ir lives a n d e x p e rie n c e s (G rover 2 0 0 4 ). W h a t ‘p a r t n e r s h i p ’ a c tu a lly a m o u n ts to d e p e n d s o n th e r e s e a r c h e r . F o r so m e it m e a n s c h ild re n s h o u ld b e ‘e m p o w e re d ’ a s r e s e a r c h e r s th e m s e lv e s , ta k in g o w n e rsh ip of th e r e s e a r c h a g e n d a (K ellett e t a l 2 0 0 4 ). F o r o th e rs , th e levels of p a rtic ip a tio n a re m o re a b o u t th e c h o ic e of m e th o d s t h a t will in c re a s e in fo rm e d in v o lv e m e n t in fie ld w o rk (A lderson 2001). H ow ever, Pole e t al (1999) a rg u e t h a t th e o rg a n is a tio n a n d s t r u c tu r e of r e s e a r c h m e a n s t h a t , d e s p ite th e b e s t in te n tio n s of th e a d u lt r e s e a r c h e r , c h ild re n a re a t b e s t p o s itio n e d a s p a r tic ip a n ts , a t w o rs t th e o b je c ts o f th e r e s e a r c h e r ’s gaze, b e c a u s e th e m eth o d o lo g y of r e s e a r c h d o e s n o t re c o g n is e c h ild r e n ’s k n o w led g e a s ‘a c a d e m ic .’
As e x p la in e d a b o v e , th e im p e tu s for th is d e v e lo p m e n t in p ra c tic e is th e th e o r y a n d p o licy c o n te x t p ro v id ed by th e ‘n e w ’ sociology of c h ild h o o d a n d th e U n ite d N a tio n s C o n v e n tio n o n th e R ig h ts of th e C h ild re sp e c tiv e ly . T h e re fo re , th e p a rtic ip a tio n d e b a te is fra m e d in te r m s of e th ic s (P u n c h 2 0 0 4 ), th e c h ild r e n ’s r ig h ts a g e n d a (A lderson 1995), a n d th e g ro w in g in v o lv e m en t of c h ild re n in m a k in g d e c is io n s a b o u t th e th in g s t h a t c o n c e rn th e m m o re b ro a d ly th r o u g h o u t so c ie ty (Hill e t a l 2 0 0 4 ; P r o u t 2 0 0 0 ). T h o m a s a n d O ’K an e (1 9 9 8 :3 3 6 ) p o in t o u t t h a t a n e th ic a l a p p r o a c h to field w o rk w ith c h ild r e n is a ls o im p o r ta n t in te r m s of th e v alid ity
a n d re lia b ility of th e r e s e a r c h , a s “effective m e th o d o lo g y a n d e th ic s go h a n d in h a n d .” R e s e a rc h m e th o d o lo g ie s th e n m u s t b e a ttu n e d to c h ild r e n ’s w a y s o f re la tin g to a n d se e in g th e w o rld in o rd e r to p ro d u c e m e a n in g fu l d a t a a b o u t th e ir e x p e rie n c e s. T h is p o in t its e c h o e d b y C h r is te n s e n (2 0 0 4 ), w h o s tr e s s e s t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s m u s t be a w a re o f c h ild r e n ’s ‘c u lt u r e s of c o m m u n ic a tio n ,’ a n d t h a t s u c h a n a w a r e n e s s c a n b e d e v e lo p e d v ia reflexive a n d d ialo g ic r e s e a r c h p r a c tic e s (see C h a p te r 6). In m y ow n field w o rk I c o n s id e re d b u t u ltim a te ly d e c id e d a g a in s t in volving th e c h ild r e n a s ‘activ e r e s e a r c h e r s ,’ p re fe rrin g to d e s ig n /s e le c t m e th o d s t h a t w ere in clu siv e a n d re s p e c tfu l of th e c h ild r e n ’s r ig h ts , w h ile b e in g m in d fu l to s u s ta i n th e p ra c tic e s of reflexivity a n d d ia lo g u e in m y o v erall m eth o d o lo g y . D e sp ite Pole e t a l ’s (1999) p o s itio n , w h ic h s u g g e s ts t h a t age is a fo rm of c a p ita l t h a t g r a n ts s t a t u s in th e o rg a n is a tio n a l s t r u c tu r e of r e s e a r c h p ra c tic e , I w o u ld a rg u e t h a t m y a p p ro a c h d o e s r e s p e c t c h ild r e n ’s a g e n c y (alb e it w ith in a re la tiv e ly tra d itio n a l r e s e a r c h s tr u c tu r e ) 23. I believe t h a t th e r e a r e s o u n d r e a s o n s for ta k in g th is a p p ro a c h b e c a u s e , a s P u n c h (2002) n o te s , w hile c h ild re n a n d y o u n g p eo p le a re c o m p e te n t in t h e ir o w n c u ltu r e s , th is d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t th e y a re sk ille d r e s e a r c h e r s . I w o u ld c o n c u r t h a t th is is a n im p o r ta n t p o in t. I m y s e lf a m a tr a in e d r e s e a r c h e r w ith a ra n g e of sk ills, a n d I a lso in v e s t in a n d p ra c tic e reflexivity, th e o re tic a l a n a ly s is a n d th e so cio lo g ical im a g in a tio n in w a y s u n a v a ila b le to th e c h ild re n , o r
a n y o n e n o t tr a in e d a s a so cio lo g ist. A long w ith P u n c h , I th in k it is
b e s t to av o id in v o lv in g c h ild r e n a n d y o u n g p eo p le in r e s e a r c h in w a y s t h a t c o u ld u ltim a te ly b e to k e n istic , th e re b y p a y in g e m p ty serv ice to th e r ig h ts a g e n d a , a n d a ls o risk in g a d e tr a c tio n from th e th e o re tic a l e n g a g e m e n t a n d r ic h n e s s of th e w o rk b y o v er
23
Pole et al (1999) argue, with som e validity, that it is the m ethodology (rather than the methods) o f research should be restructured so that children are better positioned to contribute to the creation o f knowledge about their lives. While I partially agree with this, the nature o f PhD research made the exploration o f these issues too problematic (see Chapter 1).
p riv ileg in g th e c h ild r e n ’s v o ices a t th e d ire c t e x p e n s e of th e r e s e a r c h e r ’s.
B e in g a n a d u l t r e s e a r c h e r
T h e re a re , o f c o u rs e , f u r t h e r im p lic a tio n s of b e in g a n a d u lt m ale r e s e a r c h e r u n d e r t a k in g field w o rk w ith c h ild re n : j u s t a s th e r e a re lim its re g a rd in g th e c h ild r e n ’s in v o lv e m en t in th e p r o c e s s e s of r e s e a r c h , so too th e r e a re lim its o n th e r e s e a r c h e r ’s p a rtic ip a tio n in th e c h ild r e n ’s c u lt u r a l w o rld s. T h ese c a n b e b e s t s u m m e d u p b y s a y in g t h a t it is im p o s s ib le to ever n o t b e a n a d u lt, a n d th e re fo re th e so c ia l d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n o n e ’s se lf a n d o n e ’s p a r tic ip a n ts a re m a te ria lly a n d c u ltu ra lly e v e r-p re s e n t. Som e r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a r g u e d c o n tr a r y to th is , h o w ev er, s ta tin g t h a t it is p o s s ib le to a d o p t th e ‘le a s t a d u l t ’ role (M andell 1991). S im ilarly , D av ies (2003) p r e s e n t s a v ig n e tte from h e r field w o rk w ith p re s c h o o l c h ild r e n w h e re s h e o c c u p ie s a s p a c e o n a clim b in g fra m e a n d a c t s in a ‘c h ild lik e ’ m a n n e r , w h ic h le a d s to s u s ta in e d a g g ra v a tio n b y s o m e y o u n g b o y s. D avies (2 0 0 3 :9 7 ) s u g g e s ts t h a t it is g e n d e r p o w e r a t w o rk in th is event: “th e v e h e m e n c e of m ale m a in te n a n c e of t h e ir p o w e r”. D e sp ite h e r s u g g e s tio n h o w ev er, th e d a ta c a n b e r e a d a n o th e r w ay. As E p s te in (1998) a rg u e s , it is h ig h ly p o s s ib le t h a t th e c h ild re n sa w D av ies a s a n a d u lt in v a d in g th e ir p la y a r e a , a n d t h a t th e ir r e a c tio n s w ere a s m u c h o r m o re to do w ith h e r ag e a s h e r g e n d e r.
T h e ‘c h ild lik e ’ a n d ‘le a s t a d u l t ’ p o s itio n s a re d e ep ly p ro b le m a tic n o tio n s b e c a u s e th e y ta k e little a c c o u n t of c h ild re n a s co n e g o tia to rs of th e a d u l t r e s e a r c h e r ’s s u b je c t p o sitio n . M oreover, it c o u ld b e a r g u e d t h a t w ith in c h ild r e n ’s c u ltu r a l w o rld s, it is th e y w h o h a v e th e g r e a te s t in flu e n c e in th e n e g o tia tio n of id e n tity or th e p o s itio n in g of s u b je c ts . T h r o u g h o u t m y field w o rk I w a s k e e n to u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w th e c h ild re n p o s itio n e d m e in v a rio u s w ay s a c c o rd in g to th e ir in te r p r e ta tio n s of m y se x u a lity , g e n d e r, age a n d
e th n ic ity . T h e ir n e g o tia tio n s of m y g e n d e re d se x u a lity form s u b s ta n t ia l p a r t s of C h a p te r s 7 a n d 8, a n d I u s e th e s e to ex p lo re th e c h ild r e n ’s o w n in v e s tm e n ts a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g s .
F o r e x a m p le , a lth o u g h I in tr o d u c e d m y se lf b y m y firs t n a m e a n d a s k e d th e m to call m e D av id , th e c h ild re n o fte n re fe rre d to m e a s ‘s ir 24.’ K een to d i s r u p t t h is officio u s p o sitio n in g I w o u ld tell th e m t h a t th e y d i d n ’t n e e d to c a ll m e ‘s ir ,’ b u t th e y e x p la in e d t h a t th e y w o u ld g e t in tr o u b le if th e y d id n o t, a s t h a t w a s h o w a ll m e n in th e sc h o o l w ere m e a n t to b e a d d r e s s e d . So w e a g re e d t h a t th e y w o u ld cg.ll m e ‘s i r ,’ b u t t h a t w e k n e w t h a t th e y d id n o t h a v e to. O verall th e n , I striv e d to a c h ie v e th e s t a t u s of ‘d ifferen tly a d u l t ’ - t h a t b e in g , a n a d u lt w h o d id n o t h o ld a n official p o s itio n in th e sch o o l a n d w h o w a s in te r e s te d in le ttin g th e c h ild re n tell h im a b o u t a n y th in g t h a t in te r e s te d th e m , in a c o m p letely u n c e n s o r e d w ay. T h is ‘d iffe re n tly a d u l t ’ p o s itio n affected m y m eth o d o lo g y , m e a n in g t h a t I t h o u g h t o f m y e th n o g r a p h y le s s in te r m s of p a r tic ip a n t o b s e rv a tio n a n d m o re in te r m s of s e m i- p a r tic ip a n t o b se rv a tio n , th e re b y re c o g n is in g th e lim ita tio n of a d u lt p a rtic ip a tio n in c h ild r e n ’s c u lt u r e s (P u n c h 2 0 0 2 ). As s u c h , I c o n s ta n tly reflected o n m y e m b o d ie d ‘r e s e a r c h p e rf o r m a n c e s ’ (Holt 2 0 0 4 ), n o tin g how m y c o rp o re a lity , a n d th e c u ltu r a l m e a n in g s a tta c h e d to it, affected m y p o s itio n in g in th e field (s u c h a s w h e n I s a t o n c h ild -size d c h a ir s a t th e c la s s ro o m d e s k s of m y p a rtic ip a n ts ).
H av in g o u tlin e d th e im p o r ta n t is s u e s re g a rd in g r e s e a r c h w ith c h ild re n a n d e x p la in e d h o w I a p p ro a c h e d th e m in m y ow n fieldw ork, I n o w t u r n to a d is c u s s io n of h o w I e n v isa g e c h ild re n a s c re a tiv e c u ltu r a l a g e n ts , a n d f u r th e r b rid g e th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e o ry a n d m e th o d .