◗ Deutscher Tafelwein: wine made from one of the four German wine regions designated for table wine (Rhein and Mosel, Bayern, Neckar and Oberrhein). It is often blended.
A minimum alcohol content is specified.
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◗ Landwein: quality wine from one of 19 designated districts. A minimum alcohol content is specified.
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◗ Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete (QbA): quality wine in medium price range
(includes Liebfraumilch) from one of the 13 designated regions (Anbaugetieten). It must carry an Amtliche Prüfungsnummer (control number).
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◗ Qualitätswein mit Prädikat (QmP): quality wines with distinction. They have no added sugar. The Prädikat (distinction) describes how ripe the grape was when it was harvested – generally the riper the grape, the richer the wine. There are six categories:
1 Kabinett: Made from grapes harvested at the normal time, usually October, but in a perfect state of ripeness.
2 Spätlese: Made from late harvested grapes.
3 Auslese: Made from selected bunches of ripe grapes.
4 Beerenauslese: Made from selected ripe grapes affected by noble rot.
5 Eiswein: Made from ripe grapes left on the vine to be picked and pressed when frozen.
6 Trockenbeeranauslese: Made from selected single grapes heavily affected by noble rot.
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◗ Erstes Gewächs (first growth), Grosses Gewächs (great growth) and Erste Lage (top site): newer, higher-level quality designations of wines from the finest vineyards. All classifying regions use the same Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter (VDP) logo for these super-premium wines.
Some German wine labels use the terms Trocken (dry), Halbtrocken (medium dry) or Lieblich (medium sweet) to classify the wine. The two newer classifications of dry wines are Classic and Selection (which meets additional quality criteria).
Italy
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◗ Vino da tavola: ordinary table wine, unclassified.
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◗ Vino tipico/Vino da tavola con indicazione geographics (IGT): wine from a defined area.
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◗ Denominazione de origine contrallata (DOC): quality wine from an approved area. Grape varieties, cultivation and vinification methods and maximum yields are specified.
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◗ Denominazione di origine controllata e garantia (DOCG): guaranteed quality wines from approved areas. Grape variety and proportions, maximum yield, vinification methods, pruning and cultivation and minimum alcohol content are specified.
Spain
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◗ Vino de mesa: ordinary table wine.
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◗ Vino de tierra: wines from specified regions
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◗ Denominación de origen (DO): quality wines from specified regions.
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◗ Denominación de origin calficada (DOCa)
Spanish wines may also have the term Reserva on the label. For red wines this indicates a wine that has aged for at least one year in oak casks and two years in the bottle; for white and rosé wines this indicates a wine aged for at least two years, including six months in oak casks. The other term is Gran reserva: for red wines this indicates a wine that has been aged for at least two years in oak casks and three years in the bottle; for white and rosé wines
Wine 155
this indicates a wine that has been aged for at least four years, including at least six months in oak casks.
Portugal
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◗ Vinho de mesa: ordinary table wine from no particular region and may be a blend from several regions.
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◗ Vinho regional: quality table wine from a particular place within a specified region.
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◗ Denominaçõo di origin controlada (DO): quality wines from specified regions. The quality and authenticity of the wine is guaranteed.
Estate bottled
The following terms indicate that the wine was bottled on the estate.
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◗ Mise en bouteille au domaine or Mise du domaine (France).
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◗ Erzeugerabfullung or Aus eigenem Lesegut (Germany).
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◗ Imbottligliato all’origine or Imbottigliato al’origine nelle cantine della fatoria dei: bottled at source in the cellars of the estate of (Italy).
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◗ Embottelado or Engarrafado de origen (Spain).
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◗ Engarrafado na origem (Portugal).
Other terms used in France:
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◗ Mise en bouteille au château: means the wine was bottled at the château (literally means castle) printed on the label. It is seen mostly on wines from Bordeaux.
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◗ Mise en bouteille dans nos caves: means the wine was bottled in the cellars of the company or person (négociant) whose name usually appears on the label.
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◗ Mise en bouteille par: indicates that the wine was bottled by the company, or individual, whose name appears after these words.
Countries other than the EU
Developments in the international wine business, especially in the New World, have led to a more marketing-led approach to wines. Simpler information is given on the labels and also on detailed back labels, including the identification of grape varieties (or the use of the Californian term ‘varietals’) and straightforward advice on storage, drinking and matching the wine with food.
Although most countries have a category for wines that is similar to EU Table Wine, this is mainly sold locally. On the international markets the wines are classified as Wine with Geographical Description. Each country has its own system for dividing its vineyard areas into regions, zones, districts and so on, and controlling the use of regional names.
Where regions, vintages and varieties are named on the label, these wines may also have a small proportion of wine from other regions, vintages and varieties blended with them. All countries have their own legislation covering production techniques and use of label terms to prevent consumers from being misinformed.
Argentina
Argentina has a system of DOCs (Controlled Denominations of Origin) but it is common for wines to be labelled by region.
Australia
The Label Integrity Scheme controls regional, varietal and vintage labelling. The Authentication of Origin scheme denotes that if a wine region is mentioned then at
least 80 per cent of the wine must come from that source. In addition, a system of regional appellations is being established which is designed to lead to greater geographical descriptions.
Chile
Chile has a system of regional DOs (denominations of origin) in which regions are divided into sub-regions.
New Zealand
New Zealand does not have a hierarchical structure of regional terms, although some regional names, for example, Wairau Valley or Gimblett Gravels, are more specific than others such as Marlborough or Hawkes Bay.
South Africa
The Wine of Origin (WO) scheme in South Africa controls regional labelling of wines, as well as varietal and vintage details on wine bottles. Estates are also included in the WO scheme and estate wines must only include grapes grown by the named estate.
USA
The American Viticulture Areas (AVAs) is a guarantee of source – at least 85 per cent must come from within that area – but not of quality or method of production. Regional terms can range from naming a state or a single vineyard. One increasingly popular term used in California is ‘coastal’, which allows for blending across almost all the Californian vineyards lying up to 100 km inland of the Pacific.
Reading a wine label
The EU has strict regulations that govern what is printed on a wine bottle label. These regulations also apply to wine entering the EU. In addition, standard sized bottles of light (or still) wines bottled after 1988, when EU regulations on content came into force, must contain 75 cl, although bottles from previous years, containing 70 cl for example, will still be on sale for some years to come.
In addition to the various quality terms described on pp.148–50 and the sparkling wine terms given on p.151, examples of taste and colour terms that appear on wine labels are given in Table 5.10.
Table 5.10 Examples of wine label terms indicating colour and taste
Term France Germany Italy Spain Portugal
Wine vin view vino vine vinho
Dry sec trocken secco seco seco
Medium demi-sec halbtrocken abboccato abocado semi-seco
Sweet doux/moelieaux süß dolce dulce doce
White blanc weißwein bianco blanco branco
Red rouge rotwein rosso tinto tinto
Rosé rosé rosé rosato rosado rosado
Wine 157
The label on a bottle of wine can give a lot of useful information about that wine. The language used will normally be that of the country of origin. The information always includes:
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◗ the name of the wine
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◗ the country where the wine was made
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◗ alcoholic strength in percentage by volume (% vol)
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◗ contents in litres, cl or ml
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◗ the name and address or trademark of the supplier.
It may also include:
●
◗ the varietal(s) (name of the grape(s) used to make the wine)
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◗ the year the grapes were harvested, called the vintage, if the wine is sold as a vintage wine
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◗ the region where the wine was made
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◗ the property where the wine was made
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◗ the quality category of the wine
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◗ details of the bottler and distributor.
An example of the kind of information that is given on a wine label is shown in Figure 5.7.
This example shows a guide to a German wine label.
Closures for wine bottles
There are now four main types of closures for wine bottles. These are:
Natural corks
These closures are made from whole pieces of cork. Each is individual and unique and there can be quality variation. However, natural cork has a high degree of elasticity and compressibility and it can mould itself around tiny imperfections in the neck of the bottle.
It is well proven for the long-term storage of wines. Natural cork is however susceptible to trichloroanisole (TCA) (see corked wine in
Section 5.8, p.149). If the cork dries out or is loose fitting the bottle can leak and the wine can become oxidised through being exposed to the air.
Technical (or composite) corks
These are agglomerate corks made from small pieces of natural cork moulded into a cork shape and held with food-grade glue. The better quality closures are agglomerate with solid cork discs at either end. The solid end is the only part that comes into contact with the wine. However, as with natural cork, it is susceptible to TCA. The opening process is similar to natural corks.
PFALZ PFALZ
Figure 5.7 Guide to the German wine label (source: The German Wine Information Service)
Synthetics (plastics)
These are synthetic closures that may be used for wines that are to be drunk within about 18 months of bottling. After this time synthetic closures may lose their elasticity, resulting in the risk of the seal being broken and the wine becoming oxidised through exposure to the air. Although not susceptible to TCA, there are some risks of the closure taking up fruit flavours from the wine or adding plastic flavours to the wine. The opening process is similar to traditional corks, although this type of closure can be more difficult to extract than cork and re-inserting the closure into the neck of the bottle is also difficult.
Screw caps
Various makes of screw cap and linings are used which are easy to open and reseal. The closure provides a tight seal for the bottle and TCA is unlikely. However, these closures are relatively new and the longer-term effects on wines for laying down (ageing) are yet to be determined. The opening procedure is to hold the whole length of the seal in the opening hand and to hold the base of the bottle in the other hand. The closure is held firmly in the opening hand with more pressure, from the thumb and first finger, around the cap itself.
The bottle is then sharply twisted using the hand holding the base. There will be a click and then the upper part of the screw top can be removed.
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● 5.9 Spirits
Production
All spirits are produced by the distillation of alcoholic beverages. The history of distillation goes back over 2,000 years when it is said that stills were used in China to make perfumes and by the Arabs to make spirit-based drinks.
The principle of distillation is that ethyl alcohol vaporises (boils) at a lower temperature (78°C) than water (100°C). Thus, where a liquid containing alcohol is heated in an enclosed environment the alcohol will form steam first and can be taken off, leaving water and other ingredients behind. This process raises the alcoholic strength of the resulting liquid.
There are two main methods of producing spirits: the pot still method, which is used for full, heavy flavoured spirits such as brandy, and the patent still (Coffey) method, which produces the lighter spirits such as vodka.
Bases for spirits
The bases used in the most common spirits are listed in Table 5.11. In each case the base is made into a fermented liquid (alcoholic wash) before distillation can take place.
Table 5.11 Bases for spirits
Spirit Base
Whisky, gin and vodka Barley, maize or rye (i.e. beer)
Brandy Wine
Calvados Cider
Rum Molasses
Tequila Pulque
Spirits 159
Types of spirit
Aquavit
Made in Scandinavia from potatoes or grain and flavoured with herbs, mainly caraway seeds. To be appreciated fully, Aquavit must be served chilled.
Arrack
Made from the sap of palm trees. The main countries of production are Java, India, Ceylon and Jamaica.
Brandy
Brandy may be defined as a spirit distilled from wine. The word brandy is more usually linked with the names Cognac and Armagnac, but brandy is also made in almost all wine producing areas.
Eau de vie
Eau de vie (water of life) is the fermented and distilled juice of fruit and is usually water-clear in appearance. The best eau de vie comes from the Alsace area of France, Germany, Switzerland and Eastern Europe. Examples are:
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◗ Calvados: from apples and often known as apple brandy (France)
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◗ Himbergeist: from wild raspberries (Germany).
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◗ Kirschwasser: (Kirsch) from cherries (Alsace and Germany).
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◗ Mirabelle: from plums (France).
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◗ Quetsch: from plums (Alsace and Germany).
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◗ Poire William: from pears (Switzerland and Alsace).
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◗ Slivovitz: from plums (Eastern Europe).
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◗ Fraise: from strawberries (France, especially Alsace).
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◗ Framboise: from raspberries (France, especially Alsace).
Gin
The term ‘gin’ is taken from the first part of the word Genièvre, which is the French term for juniper. Juniper is the principal botanica (flavouring agent) used in the production of gin.
The word ‘Geneva’ is the Dutch translation of the botanical, juniper. Maize is the cereal used in gin production in the United Kingdom. However, rye is the main cereal generally used in the production of Geneva gin and other Dutch gins.
Malted barley is an accepted alternative to the cereals mentioned above. The two key ingredients (botanicals) recognised for flavouring purposes are juniper berries and coriander seeds.
Types of gin are:
●
◗ Fruit gins: as the term implies, these are fruit flavoured gins that may be produced from any fruit. The most popular are sloe, orange and lemon.
●
◗ Geneva gin: this is made in Holland by the pot still method alone and is generally known as ‘Hollands’ gin.
●
◗ London Dry Gin: this is the most well known and popular of all the gins. It is unsweetened.
●
◗ Old Tom: this is a sweet gin made in Scotland. The sweetening agent is sugar syrup. As the name implies, it was traditionally used in a Tom Collins cocktail.
●
◗ Plymouth Gin: this has a stronger flavour than London Dry and is manufactured by
Coates in Devon. It is most well known for its use in the cocktail Pink Gin, together with the addition of Angostura Bitters.
Grappa
An Italian-style brandy produced from the pressings of grapes after the required must – unfermented grape juice – has been removed for wine production. It is similar in style to the French marc brandy.
Marc
Local French brandy made where wine is made. Usually takes the name of the region, for example, Marc de Borgogne.
Mirabelle
A colourless spirit made from plums. The main country of origin is France.
Pastis
Pastis is the name given to spirits flavoured with anis and/or liquorice, such as Pernod.
The spirit is made in many Mediterranean countries and is popular almost everywhere. It has taken over from absinthe, once known as the ‘Green Goddess’.
Quetsch
A colourless spirit with plums being the main ingredient. The key countries of production are the Balkans, France and Germany. It has a brandy base.
Rum
This is a spirit made from the fermented by-products of sugar cane. It is available in dark and light varieties and is produced in countries where sugar cane grows naturally, for example, Jamaica, Cuba, Trinidad, Barbados, Guyana and the Bahamas.
Schnapps
A spirit distilled from a fermented potato base and flavoured with caraway seed. The main countries of production are Germany and Holland.
Tequila
A Mexican spirit distilled from the fermented juice (pulque) of the agave plant. It is traditionally drunk after a lick of salt and a squeeze of lime or lemon.
Vodka
A highly rectified (very pure) patent still spirit. It is purified by being passed through activated charcoal, which removes virtually all aroma and flavour. It is described as a colourless and flavourless spirit.
Whisk(e)y
Whisky or whiskey is a spirit made from cereals: Scotch whisky from malted barley; Irish whiskey usually from barley; North American whiskey and Bourbon from maize and rye.
The spelling whisky usually refers to the Scotch or Canadian drink and whiskey to the Irish or American.
Scotch whisky is primarily made from barley, malted (hence the term malt whisky) then heated over a peat fire. Grain whiskies are made from other grains and are usually blended with malt whisky.
Irish whiskey differs from Scotch in that hot air rather than a peat fire is used during malting, thus Irish whiskey does not gain the smoky quality of Scotch. It is also distilled three times (rather than two as in the making of Scotch) and is matured longer.
Beer 161
Canadian whisky is usually a blend of flavoured and neutral whiskies made from grains such as rye, wheat and barley.
American whiskey is made from various mixtures of barley, maize and rye. Bourbon is made from maize.
Japanese whisky is made by the Scotch process and is blended.
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● 5.10 Liqueurs
Liqueurs are defined as sweetened and flavoured spirits. They should not be confused with liqueur spirits, which may be whiskies or brandies of great age and quality. For instance, a brandy liqueur is a liqueur with brandy as a basic ingredient, while a liqueur brandy may be defined as a brandy of great age and excellence.
Production
Liqueurs are made by two basic methods:
1 Heat or infusion method: best when herbs, peels, roots, etc., are being used, as heat can extract their oils, flavours and aromas.
2 Cold or maceration method: best when soft fruits are used to provide the flavours and