OBJECTIVES
7. Metabolomics: study and quality improvement of the (E)VOO
This section examines three hypotheses further:
• Its rural background and theory of ministry prevent the CCAP from developing an effective urban ministry that adequately addresses the problems of the poor.
• Urban ministry in the shantytowns and slums can be successful only if the residents participate in the planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of the ministry.
• A holistic approach to urban ministry with joint forums for development is needed to address problems of urban poverty.
The provisions documented in this section are further examined in chapter 4, section 4.1, dealing with the extent of poverty in Malawi, and also in section 4.5.1 on current definitions of poverty.
This section deals with seven aspects of services that city assemblies deliver to urban dwellers.
• Job creation opportunities,
• Watersupply, and urban sanitation:
• The high rate of unemployment,
• Commerce and industry,
• Unplanned housing and squatter settlements, poor health situation,
• Education,
• Firewood (charcoal), a source of power for the poor.
One of the objectives of the researcher was to determine the impact government provision services have in addressing the poverty gripping the poor urban population. In this case, the study pays attention to Lilongwe and Blantyre assemblies. Like all other Assemblies world-wide, the duties of Assemblies are to serve the urban residents. Such services include the provision of water, health facilities, adequate sanitation, housing, job creation, energy and power, a conducive environment to education and other necessary services that are needed in order to ensure sustainability of life to the urban poor.
3.4.1 JOB CREATION OPPORTUNITIES
One of the government's responsibilities is to create employment for the people. This is critical for people's happiness and for them to be able to meet their basic needs for life. The Lilongwe city population is 435 964; of this figure 55 772 are employed in the formal sector.
This means that there are a large number of people in the informal sector (380 192 and are either self-employed or unemployed. Of these two groups, there are more unemployed than those in the business sectors. Kayuza (2000:4) reports "It is estimated that more than 60% of the population lives below the poverty line."
The unemployment is on the increase in Malawi's cities. As a result, the urban poor are forced to live in the unplanned squatter and slums areas, because they cannot meet the cost of house rentals. Kayuza (2000:4) comments "The majority of the people in Lilongwe live in substandard houses. Although the city assembly is giving many plots to individuals, about 80% still live in unplanned houses." Due to poverty, the urban poor resort to small-scale businesses along the roads; their profits are minimal and they live "hand-to-mouth." Street vending is a common activity in the cities, and it appears that the poor are the vendors. That most of the trade in which the urban poor are engaged is on a small scale is noted when comparing the mean monthly sales values for the poor and non-poor urban traders, Profile of poverty in Malawi (PPM 2000:30).
Table 2: poverty and ultra-poverty lines at July 2000 prices, by poverty line area (The figures are in %)
Poverty line Ultra-poverty line
Southern rural 14.42 8.65
Central rural 17.22 10.33
Northern rural 20.74 12.44
Urban 47.18 28.31
National weighted average 19.47
-poverty line
Adjusted using the national total consumer price index.
Source: Malawi Government (PPM 2000:41).
July 2000: MK 55.00 =US$ 1.00
The city of Blantyre is no better off. Matope (2000:5) states "Urban poverty is a pervasive
growing phenomenon in Malawi, and the cities are worse. It is estimated that about 65% of
the urban households are below the poverty line, comprising 33% women-headed and 32%
men-headed households." Due to unemployment, the lack of a balanced diet is one of the challenges that the urban poor face, and, as a result, malnutrition is significant among needy children.
Matope (2000:5) notes " ... poor households in Blantyre city spend more than 60% of their disposable income on food alone, and many household are forced to survive on one meal a day and malnutrition and stunting are present particularly among children." It is believed that the situation can change if more jobs are created. So the government is supposed to initiate more jobs for the unemployed. Roe (1992:144) notes "There is a need to set up a mechanism for providing extension services to the informal sector in the form of business and technical development. "
3.4.2 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY: THE TROUBLED SECTOR
Closely related to job creation is commerce and industry. In the historical background above, we have noted that Lilongwe was declared the central government headquarters in 1975 to improve government efficiency by concentrqtingcentral government functions that previously were shared between Zomba and Blantyre when Zomba was the capital city. We noted that the move was strategic in order to stimulate development in the central and northern regions through the establishment of a major growth point in the centre of the country.
As a result of this move, Lilongwe city became a major centre of government administration with agro-related industries manufacturing for export and domestic demand. It is pathetic that the industry sector does not deliver the expected demand to create adequate jobs. Kayuza (2000:9) comments "Causes of industrial low contribution are lack of investment in working capital, shortage of raw materials, inadequate water and power supplies, poor infrastructure and financial credit limitations."
Although the city does not benefit much from commerce and industry, the waste produced by the industries impacts negatively on the environment. A situation has risen where the waste is not properly treated and disposed of in a manner that is conducive to human health and safety.
Kayuza (2000: 10) notes "At present, waste from factories that use oil, spills into storm drains thus polluting the land and eventually water courses that are used by many people within the city limits and down stream."
Although the government is a formal major employer within Lilongwe city, hawkers, street vendors, minibus drivers, and food sellers are common features in the streets and make a sizeable contribution to the city's economy. Commenting on the vending situation in Blantyre city, Matope (2000:20) notes "The preparation, handling and vending of food in open unhygienic conditions, which is common practice in the city, is dangerous and an invitation to food-related disease epidemics specially cholera."
3.4.3 WATER SUPPLY
Without doubt, water is a very important element to human life. The city of Lilongwe obtains its water from two dams on the Lilongwe River. The Lilongwe Water Board (LWB) owns the dams and therefore treats and supplies the water. Kayuza (2000:7) comments "The water meets stringent standards of the World Health Organization. It is 99.9% compliant."
The challenge that faces the water sector is the fact that the urban poor cannot meet the cost of water; instead they use unprocessed water from unprotected wells and rivers, which are the major causes of water-borne diseases. Another disadvantage is that, in order to get access to water, the vendors break the water pipes, allowing contamination into the water system.
Kayuza (2000:xii) laments "While the Lilongwe Water Board kills the germs where the pipe has broken, the other service providers simply seal the spot without killing the germs. In this way, germs are introduced in the potable water."
The Blantyre City Assembly faces similar water problems. Matope (2000:7) comments
The piped water system also suffers frequent pipe breakage and leakage due to pres-sure, age and maintenance problems. This, combined with poor drainage and sanita-tion leads to ponding, the formasanita-tion of small water pools which become breeding ground for mosquitoes hence increasing the incidence of malaria, one of the major killer diseases in Malawi.
Another challenge surrounding this sector is the shortage of water. In the slums (Nkolokoti and Ndirande), there are a few water points where people go to buy water. When there is a water shortage, people are forced to use unprotected water from the nearby sources. Matope (2000:7) affirms "Water shortages, rationing and disruption is common in Blantyre, and this has an effect on the use of waterborne toilets and sanitation in general in the city."
3.4.4 URBAN SANITATION: A GREAT CONCERN FOR THE UNEMPLOYED In chapter 6 the health situation will again receive further attention (section 6.3.2.2).
The research revealed that sanitation in Lilongwe city is divided into four activities, the piped sewerage system, pit latrines, septic tanks and the storm water drainage system. Of the population in Lilongwe 70% use a pit latrine system. Most of these are in the traditional housing areas (THAs) and slums. Due to many people using one pit latrine, the latrine fills rapidly and becomes a health hazard. Kayuza (2000:14) comments "If the family size is small, the pit latrine serves very well, but in the THAs where a plot may be used by as many as 15 people, the pit latrine fills fast and becomes a health hazard. Unfortunately these latrines do not have reinforced walls and cannot be dislodged."
Aware of the dangers resulting from poor sanitation, the city of Lilongwe had a practice of providing free toilet facilities at strategic points within the city. Regrettably people have been stealing toilet equipment leaving the place untidy and unattended to. Kayuza (2000: 14) affirms "But due to vandalism, the city was forced to withdraw the service except at very strategic locations such as produce markets." The fact that the provision of free toilet facilities was discontinued has contributed negatively to the environment of the city, as people help themselves anyhow. On the other hand, the continued the use of pit latrines has resulted in a health hazard in Lilongwe. Kayuza (2000: 15) notes "The predominant use of the pit latrines, most of which are full and poor solid waste removal services have combined to produce many environmental health hazards particularly in unplanned and planned TRAs."
Blantyre city experiences similar pit latrine challenges particularly in the slums surrounding the city. Matope (2000: 10) notes "Most of the pit latrines are defective and become full quickly because of overcrowding and high toilet user ratio prevailing in these areas; and the majority of the plots are over-developed leaving no room for replacement or additional pit latrines, refuse disposal and open space." In the squatter areas surrounding Lilongwe, poor sanitation coupled with bad hygiene, constitutes an environmental health hazard. Rubbish is not collected on a regular basis in the slums as well as in some public places, especially mini-markets within the city. Sanitarily, these places are unsatisfactory as piles of uncollected refuse are commonplace. With regard to the matter of unattended refuse, Kayuza (2000: 17) notes "The reasons for this situation are lack of public awareness, lack of financial capacity and inadequate regulatory mechanisms. Rain induces decomposition of solid waste
particularly if it is not collected regularly. When it is decomposed the refuse collector finds it uncomfortable to handle it because of odour and heat."
3.4.5 HOUSING: UNPLANNED AND SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS
The high rate of urbanization is the major challenge for both Lilongwe and Blantyre City Assemblies. The causes of the housing problem are the growing poverty, largely due to the unfavourable macro-economic environment and other causes, such as limited employment opportunities and low levels of production.
Kayuza (2000:20) comments "Out of a total population of 435 964, 78% are housed in low income housing areas and of these 44% live in traditional housing areas and the rest in unplanned traditional settlements." The increasing number of people culminates an increasing number of houses in the city causing congestion and overcrowding. This, combined with improper disposal of sanitation, results in the contamination of surface water and contributes to outbreaks ofwater-bome diseases.
Table 3: Population distribution by housing category - 1999
Housing Category Population Percentage Average No. of Average No.
Household Households persons per
Size plot
Low density 26,713 5.15 4.6 8,507 6.4
housing
Medium density 8,508 1.64 5.2 1,636 6.1
housing
Flats 1,659 0.32
- -
-High density 49,771 9.59 5.4 9,217 6.3
permanent
Traditional 82,688 15.93 4.9 16,815 9.3
housing areas
Unplanned 285,210 54.94 4.5 63,380 9.4
housing
Urban areas 64,484 12.42
- -
-Total average 519,033 100.0 4.8 108,132 7.7
Blantyre city
High density permanent, traditional housing areas, and unplanned housing are the locations for the urban poor.
Source: Matope (2000: 66).
For example, in Blantyre city the unplanned housing, including urban villages, accounted for 44% in 1977 and jumped to 67.4% in 1999. This is, indeed, a great cause for concern. Matope (2000: 15) laments "If this trend continues, Blantyre city housing will be dominated by unplanned housing hence unattractive for investment and living. Furthermore, the majority of the structures in the THAs and unplanned housing areas are not suitable for habitation and require replacement, rehabilitation or reconstruction."
In Lusaka (Zambia), the situation has risen whereby the housing problems of the squatters can no longer be addressed, because the government has no place to resettle the squatters. Turner (1988:22) notes "By the early 1970s, the authorities had accepted that squatter compounds could not be eradicated. It was equally impossible to relocate their people in rural areas or in publicly subsidized housing." The poor suffer much because they cannot afford high rentals.
Roe (1992: 140) confirms "Housing is a problem for people at all levels of the income strata, it is the poor who suffer the most, being unable to afford the exorbitant rents now charged in the planned housing areas for adequate housing."
According to the Poverty Alleviation Programme (PAP), the housing sector faces a huge challenge. This ranges from a number of constraints for low incomes amongst the would-be beneficiaries to a lack of a comprehensive housing policy. The PAP (1995:34) states the following as the most prevalent constraints:
1. Low levels of income and the impact of a high population growth amongst the poor.
2. Limited access to low-cost technologies and to credit facilities for housing development.
3. Lack of services and orderly housing development in urban areas.
4. Lack of a comprehensive housing policy and failure of recognition within the public sector of the housing sector as a productive investment.
5. Negative cultural beliefs.
The squatter settlements generally have no servIces and, therefore, are more exposed to epidemics. Such places are often located far from the major lines of transport, thus inaccessi-ble for certain emergency services. In Blantyre 71% of the population live in unplanned housing areas. Matope (2000:5) warns "These areas are characterised by very poor living
conditions due to lack of basic servIces, sub-standard housing, poor sanitation and overcrowding." Kayuza (2000:21) echoes the situation in Lilongwe, "The overcrowding and congestion in the unplanned settlements culminate in the enviromnental problems such as unsightly garbage, foul smell, pests, and vermin, breeding grounds for disease transmitting insects, as well as ground and surface water pollution."
Most of the urban poor build housing structures that are of temporary inflammable material including plastic, paper, wood, bamboo and cardboard. This makes them susceptible to accidental fire. Roe (1992:141) notes "Among other things the consequences of such overcrowding are inordinately poor sanitation practices." In Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, the situation of rapid growth rate and slums is similar to that of Lilongwe and Blantyre.
Turner (1988:21) comments "By 1974, ten years after independence, Lusaka's population had grown to well over quarter of a million, nearly half of whom lived in the peripheral, un-serviced settlements." The slums in Lusaka are also in dire need of basic facilities. Turner (1988:22) confirms "Residents provided themselves with wells, pit latrines and some garbage pits. The settlements were dispersed, imposing long journeys to work for many." The squatter situation in Malawi is on the increase. The government "needsto develop ways and means to discourage people from squatting. Deterioration in moral behaviour can also be correlated with deterioration in the health status.
3.4.6