LA METILACIÓN COMO MECANISMO DE INACTIVACIÓN DE UN GEN

Western counselling approaches have been widely adopted and applied across the world. Duan et al. (2011) argue that there is a significant difference between Eastern and Western models of counselling, therefore, applying Western counselling models directly into non-Western contexts does not appear feasible. The authors assert that contextualising

counselling approaches is particularly important in order to deliver counselling appropriately for local needs. Buddhist counselling is one such example (see appendix U). Srichannil and Prior (2013) explain how in Thailand, Buddhist counsellors typically apply indigenous knowledge through applying a Buddhist conceptualization of suffering as a basis to inform their counselling practice. These authors elaborate on The Four Noble Truths, which is described as a theoretical framework to enable Buddhist counsellors to identify, understand and deal with clients’ suffering. Before understanding the suffering of clients, counsellors need to internalise Buddhist philosophy to gain a deeper insight into their own suffering. Srichannil and Prior (2013) suggests that the Buddhist counselling process incorporates three major elements which are turning in, identifying split, and realisation. “Turning in” is where a counsellor makes profound engagement with a client. “Identifying split” is where the cause of suffering is viewed as discrepancy between desires and actual experience. “Realisation” happens when a counsellor identifies this discrepancy in the client and facilitate his or her realisation of the split.

There are some similarities between Buddhist counselling and both person-centred and humanistic approaches (Srichannil & Prior, 2013). Buddhist counselling highlights ways in which a therapeutic relationship is established through “empathic attunement to the client’s implicit and explicit feelings, emotions and thoughts in order to understand and empathise with the client from his or her internal frame of reference” (Srichannil & Prior, 2013, p. 245). Similarly, in Buddhist counselling the interventions are all made to enable clients to

recognise the causes of their psychological problems as well as providing clients with better insight into their own problems (Srichannil & Prior, 2013). The difference could be that in Buddhist counselling, practitioners provides clients with the particular causes of suffering and ways of accepting these causes based on Buddhist philosophy and practice (Srichannil & Prior, 2013).

In China, Buddhist theories are also applied in counselling and psychotherapy. Compassion, Mahayana teachings, and loving kindness, however, are the major themes of Chinese Buddhism (Cheng & Tse, 2014). Earlier research shows that the counselling system in Hong Kong had been profoundly influenced by Confucianism, which is the local culture (Hue, 2008). As Hue points out, “Confucianism served as a paramount and respected reference for school guidance and teachers’ expectations of how students could be better counselled” (p. 306). Another study indicated that a number of Western approaches had been adopted, and provided for secondary school teachers in Hong Kong through professional training. These approaches included person-centred, cognitive behavioural, existential, integrative, psycho- analytic and reality therapy. The most popular theoretical orientation rated by counsellor educators, however, was the person-centred approach (Chan, 2008).

There is an extensive range of counselling techniques applied in practice. Each technique, however, is not unique to every context, therefore, the contextualisation of different approaches must be taken into consideration. Also, counselors need to apply local knowledge in order to provide services that suit local needs (Duan et al., 2011).

2.2. The range of student counselling services offered within tertiary institutions in Asian countries: Taiwan, Japan and Thailand

Counselling centres provide a huge range of services in different tertiary institutions. According to Hsu (2005), these include: academic support, health and counselling services, and a positive environment is also created for students. Wang (2008) comments that UCCs typically provide counselling and psychotherapy, educational guidance, and surveys to assess the quality of services. The literature suggests that counselling services can be categorised into three different levels in Taiwanese universities, namely tertiary, secondary, and primary (Lin, Liu, & Hsieh, 2010; Wang & Pan, 2006). The authors explain that tertiary services incorporate vocational guidance, individual and group counselling, crisis intervention, and

psychotherapy. The secondary level includes identifying students with potential high-risk behaviours and notifying the need for early intervention. In addition, psychological testing is employed to identify students’ emotional problems, and particularly to encourage self- exploration. Primary services mainly involve supporting the psychosocial development of students. Lin et al., (2015) point out that UCCs also offer other services, including training and supervision for counsellor interns, training run by volunteers, administrative work, support for underprivileged groups of students, and assistance with activities within campus and communities. In summary, university counselling professions provide counselling, psychological testing, psychiatric treatment, and diagnosis (Lin et al., 2015).

In Japanese institutions, a survey of 306 universities undertaken by the UCC of Dokkyo University from late 2002 to 2003 discovered that the vast majority of campuses had set up their own Student Counselling Centres (SCCs) (Hayashi & Takahashi, 2004b). Based on the findings of the survey, the SCCs provide a wide range of activities for students, namely, individual counselling, group counselling, surveys and research, lectures and group activities within and outside the campus. Activitites are also organised for counselling staff such as publishing journal articles and other documents, personal relations, psychological testing, training, round-table talks and running conferences (Hayashi & Takahashi, 2004b).

Consistent with a previous study conducted at the SCC of Meiji Gakuin University, face-to- face counselling was most frequently, followed by telephone counselling (Hayashi & Takahashi, 2004a; Wantanabe-Muraoka, 1997).

In Thailand, Ratanasiriphong and Rodriguez (2011) highlight that most colleges and universities offer academic support to students. Some other support services, such as health services, are only provided in selected colleges. These authors add that counselling and psychological services are delivered only within a minority of tertiary institutions. These counselling offices typically assist students in dealing with academic difficulties, career

development, and personal problems. Other universities put student wellness and prevention services in a larger unit called “Student Affairs Services” (Tuicomepee et al., 2012).

In summary, counselling services typically provide an extensive range of services such as counselling, psychotherapy, and vocational advice. The services offered, however, depend on the conditions and characteristics of each individual institution.

2.3. Main issues faced by tertiary students in Asian countries: Taiwan and Japan