7. Conclusions
7.1. El model d'atenció
Conflicts can be reduced if we know about their causes. The processes that increase conflict can be turned around to reduce it also. A number of strategies have been suggested by psychologists. Some of these are :
Introduction of superordinate goals : Sherif’s study, already mentioned in the section on cooperation and competition, showed that by introducing superordinate goals, intergroup conflict can be reduced. A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial to both parties, hence both groups work cooperatively.
Altering perceptions : Conflicts can also be reduced by altering perceptions and reactions through persuasion, educational and media appeals, and portrayal of groups differently in society. Promoting empathy for others should be taught to everyone right from the beginning.
Your rewards Your contributions Your friends’ rewards Your friends’ contributions
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes 149
Key Terms
Arbitration, Cohesiveness, Competition, Compliance, Conflict, Conformity, Cooperation, Goal achievement, Group, Group formation, Groupthink, Identity, Ingroup, Interdependence, Intergroup, Negotiation, Norms, Obedience, Outgroup, Proximity, Roles, Social facilitation, Social influence, Social inhibition, Social loafing, Status, Structure, Superordinate goals.
Increasing intergroup contacts : Conflict can also be reduced by increasing contacts between the groups. This can be done by involving groups in conflict on neutral grounds through community projects and events. The idea is to bring them together so that they become more appreciative of each other’s stand. However, for contacts to be successful, they need to be maintained, which means that they should be supported over a period of time. Redrawing group boundaries : Another technique that has been suggested by some psychologists is redrawing the group boundaries. This can be done by creating conditions where groups boundaries are redefined and groups come to perceive themselves as belonging to a common group.
Negotiations : Conflict can also be resolved through negotiations and third party interventions. Warring groups can resolve conflict by trying to find mutually acceptable solutions. This requires understanding and trust. Negotiation refers to reciprocal communications so as to reach an agreement in situations in which
there is a conflict. Sometimes it is difficult to dissipate conflict through negotiations; at that time mediation and arbitration by a third party is needed. Mediators help both parties to focus their discussions on the relevant issues and reach a voluntary agreement. In arbitration, the third party has the authority to give a decision after hearing both parties.
Structural solutions : Conflict can also be reduced by redistributing the societal resources according to principles based on justice. Research on justice has identified several principles of justice. Some of these are : equality (allocating equally to every one), need (allocating on the basis of needs), and equity (allocating on the basis of contributions of members).
Respect for other group’s norms : In a pluralist society like India, it is necessary to respect and be sensitive to the strong norms of various social and ethnic groups. It has been noticed that a number of communal riots between different groups have taken place because of such insensitivity.
• Groups are different from other collections of people. Mutual interdependence, roles, status, and expectations are the main characteristics of groups.
• Groups are organised systems of two or more individuals.
• People join groups because they provide security, status, self-esteem, satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs, goal achievement, and knowledge and information.
• Proximity, similarity, and common motives and goals facilitate group formation. • Generally, group work leads to beneficial results. However, sometimes in cohesive
and homogeneous groups, the phenomenon of groupthink may occur.
• Groups are of different types, i.e. primary and secondary, formal and informal, and ingroup and outgroup.
Weblinks http://www.mapnp.org/library/grp_skill/theory/theory.htm http://www.socialpsychology.org/social.htm http://www.stanleymilgram.com/main.htm http://www.psychclassics.yorku.ca/sheriff/chap1.htm
Review Questions
1. Compare and contrast formal and informal groups, and ingroups and outgroups. 2. Are you a member of a certain group? Discuss what motivated you to join that
group.
3. How does Tuckman’s stage model help you to understand the formation of groups? 4. How do groups influence our behaviour?
5. How can you reduce social loafing in groups? Think of any two incidents of social loafing in school. How did you overcome it?
6. How often do you show conformity in your behaviour? What are the determinants of conformity?
7. Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour may be harming others? Explain.
8. What are the benefits of cooperation? 9. How is one’s identity formed?
10. What are some of the causes of intergroup conflict? Think of any international conflict. Reflect on the human price of this conflict.
Project
Ideas
1. “S/he who does not ask will never get a bargain.” Collect the newspapers of last onemonth. List the different bargains that were offered by shopkeepers. What compliance techniques were used by them? Ask your friends how many were attracted by these bargains.2. Make a list of different conflicts that have occurred among different houses in the
school. How were these conflicts resolved?
3. Identify any Test series in cricket which India played recently. Collect the newspapers
of that period. Evaluate the reviews of the matches and comments made by Indian and rival commentators. Do you see any difference between the comments?
4. Imagine that you have to collect money to help an NGO working for the girl child. What techniques of social influence would you use? Try any two techniques and see the difference.
• Groups influence individual behaviour. Social facilitation and social loafing are two important influences of groups.
• Conformity, compliance, and obedience are three important forms of social influence. • Conformity is the most indirect form of social influence; obedience the most direct
form; compliance is in-between the two.
• People interact in social situations by either cooperating or competing. • One’s self-definition of who s/he is referred to as social identity. • Group conflicts occur in all societies.
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes 151
Pedagogical Hints
1. In the topic of nature and formation
of groups, students should be made to understand the importance of groups in real-life. Here, it needs to be emphasised that they should be careful in choosing groups. Teachers can ask a few students how they have become members of different groups, and what do they get from membership in these groups.
2. For explaining social loafing, simple experiments can be conducted in the class by asking students to perform some activities in groups and then asking them about their contributions in the activities undertaken. Learning experience for students should be on ways to avoid social loafing.
3. In the topic of cooperation and competition, students should be told the benefits of both cooperation and competition. They should be able to appreciate that cooperation is a better strategy in society. Some cases of real-life where cooperative efforts have been successful can be discussed.
4. Students should be able to appreciate that identities are important and how our identities influence our social behaviour. 5. In the section on intergroup conflict,
emphasis should be on conflict resolution strategies rather than conflict per se.