Modelo conceptual e hipótesis de investigación

The lack of basic services affects every aspect of community life: daily living, schools, clinics and recreational facilities (Nelson Mandela Foundation, 2005). According to Daphne Gumbi (2009), rural communities lack piped water, electricity, roads, health and educational facilities; requirements that are necessary for human development. When a community goes without water or electricity, the schools also suffer. Schools are inseparable from the communities they serve, and without a holistic approach to the general conditions of poverty; neither the school nor the community can address the challenges (Nelson Mandela Foundation, 2005).

There is no question that government policies prior to 1994 led to significant backlogs in school infrastructure in particular regions and, specifically, for black learners. However, 20 years into the new democracy, it would be reasonable to expect that the worst examples of inequality would have been addressed; that children would not be learning under trees or in conditions that are dangerous or completely dysfunctional (Centre for Child Law, 2014).

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Equal Education (2015) further emphasized that those schools in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal are the worst affected. Efforts to improve public schools infrastructure include the establishment of a dedicated unit to speed up schools infrastructure delivery called the Accelerated Schools Infrastructure Delivery Initiative (ASIDI) and the legislation of minimum requirements for ‘ideal’ schools. These efforts run parallel to the conventional school building program. According to the Department of Basic Education (2014), the objective of ASIDI is to eradicate the Basic Safety Norms backlog in schools. That means it focuses on replacing schools with unsafe or inappropriate structures, schools without water, sanitation and electricity in order to contribute towards higher levels of optimum learning and teaching. Inappropriate structures are buildings that have been constructed from inappropriate materials such as asbestos, corrugated metal, mud and wood. The South African power utility, Eskom, generates 95% of the electricity used in South Africa and approximately 45% of the electricity used in Africa. It owns and operates the national electricity grid. While Eskom does not have exclusive generation rights, it has a practical monopoly on bulk electricity in South Africa. The state utility is going to be under intense pressure for years to come to build enough generation capacity to meet the country’s needs. The World Bank is a crucial source of funding. Initially reluctant, Eskom has become enthusiastic about renewables in part, to keep the World Bank happy. The bank itself is under intense criticism for lending $3.7 billion to Eskom to fund the gigantic Medupi power plant that will eventually consume 15 million tons of coal a year. To get access to World Bank funding, Eskom has had to demonstrate that it is willing to curb emissions. And that means renewables (du Venage, 2013).

In 2015, Eskom announced that it faced a R225-billion revenue shortfall as a result of it being granted increases of 8% between 2013 and 2018 as compared with the 16% it had sought. With a R225-million revenue shortfall over five years, Eskom will remain dependent on the government (and tax payer) for the foreseeable future and therefore will be limited in terms of using South Africa’s abundant solar resources especially in the Northern Cape and ideal average wind conditions along its over 2 500 km of coastline, not to mention excellent clear sky conditions for rooftop solar photovoltaic installations.

Toni (2005) agrees that many of the challenges facing education can be traced to the country’s past. However, not enough has been done in the intervening 20 years to address the inadequacies created as a result of apartheid and the homelands policy that created Bantustans. According to Equal Education (2015), the 2011 National Education Infrastructure Management Systems (NEIMS) Report identifies 24 793 schools in the country of which 3544 do not have electricity and a further 804 schools have an unreliable electricity source. The latest NEIMS report published in October 2014 reports that there are now 23 740 ordinary schools in SA, 1131 of these do not have electricity at all, and a further 2 773 schools have an unreliable electrical supply. In the EC, a province of two of the Bantustans, there are 5 468 ordinary schools, where 377 do not have electricity and 1 450 have an unreliable electrical supply. This means that 33% of the schools without electricity in SA are in the EC and 52% of the schools without a reliable electricity supply are in the EC. 1 827 (377 + 1450) out of 5 468 schools in the Eastern Cape do not have a reliable electrical source. According to the Eastern Cape Department of Education (Education Management Information Systems, 2015), 3104 out of the 5767 schools in the province (54%) are in rural areas. Equal Education (2015) citing the NEIMS Report (2011), that of the 24 793 ordinary schools in South Africa at the time, 22 938 schools do not have stocked libraries, while 19 541 do not have a library at all. 21 021 schools do not have laboratory facilities and only 1 231 have stocked laboratories. 19 037 schools do not have a computer centre and 3 267 have a computer room but it is not equipped with computers.

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The South African Schools Act: ‘Regulations relating to minimum uniform norms and standards for public school Infrastructure’ (2013) provides that all schools must have some form of power supply that complies with all relevant laws. In addition, the regulations state that ‘the forms of power supply may include grid electrical reticulation, generators, solar powered energy or wind powered energy sources’. The power supply must be sufficient to serve the power requirements of the school and must be based on the most appropriate power source available. Renewable energy systems are a viable solution for energy provision in rural schools. In the Far East and on the African continent, various companies and governments use innovative, alternative solutions to bring electricity to schools in remote areas. Samsung Electronics Africa, through their CSI initiative with NGO Habitat for Humanity, is piloting solar powered internet schools in rural areas across the continent. The schools are housed in 12m shipping containers with foldaway solar panels that can provide electricity for 24 hours and have storage for up to a week when there is no sunshine. Electrification would enable internet connectivity and improve learning delivery. Panasonic have the Power Supply Container, a system using a combination of high efficiency solar modules and batteries to supply electricity at remote island locations and specifically to schools. The system can be configured to supply surplus electricity to the surrounding community when the batteries are full.

Various non-governmental organisations and companies have dedicated initiatives to achieve electronic connectivity in rural schools and communities. ClickMaths, an NGO based in Cape Town makes mathematics content available to underprivileged learners in English and Xhosa. Vodacom has a website called e-school which provides lessons for grades 8 -12 for most of the subjects in the high school curriculum. In addition, they have 40 teacher centres countrywide to offer teacher development training and specifically ICT skills training in all subjects. Discovery Education, through their website, offers virtual tours of mines, navy vessels and other scientific attractions. The site also has online science competitions for schools where learners can compete with schools across the globe, has new teacher survival kits and many lessons from driving safety to economics essentials.

RESEARCH REVIEW AND METHODOLOGY

Information regarding schools infrastructure can be found on government websites, in publications from non-governmental organizations and from other education stakeholders including Equal Education. However, although this information is comprehensive in terms of statistical data, it has little project specific information relating to the delivery of projects and therefore it was necessary to collect information from a group that experience and attempt to solve the problems faced by public schools, Built Environment professionals contracted to the Department of Public Works for the design and management of school infrastructure projects. As these professionals are spread over a vast geographical area and are constantly moving between project sites, an electronic quantitative questionnaire based on questions derived from the literature review and experience of the lead researcher in his role in delivering schools in the province, was deemed the most appropriate method to gather this data.

Research method

The data for this study consists of primary data collected via a quantitative questionnaire and secondary data from online reports and publications sourced from databases. The study was limited to rural government schools in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, as these show the highest incidence of schools with an unreliable electrical supply and in addition, the greatest percentage of schools being in rural areas (54%). An enquiry at the Department of Education resulted in contact

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being made with a member of the Project Management Team that plays an oversight role on education infrastructure in the province who provided a list of all three implementing agents involved in delivering schools in the province. The primary data was obtained through a questionnaire consisting mainly of 5 point Likert scale type questions emailed to one-hundred and seven architects, quantity surveyors, construction project managers and engineers who have fulfilled a design consulting and principal agent role in the Eastern Cape schools building program. Twenty-eight recipients could not be reached on the contact details provided, in the yellow pages and/or on their websites. Twenty-one returned completed surveys.

Research results

Of the 21 respondents, 20% of the initial sample, 61.9% were Quantity Surveyors, whilst none of the large multi- disciplinary consultancies responded and there were no project management firms in the population. Of these 21, 9 had fulfilled the role of principle agent on projects. Nearly 40% of consultants advised that at least half to all of the schools they have encountered were not electrified.

When reviewing why it was that schools are not electrified, the main reason identified was due to the fact that the community is not electrified with over 60% responding that often to always the lack of electricity in a community was the reason the school is not electrified. Damaged electrical infrastructure ranked second with a mean score of only 2.29 indicating that this is not a major reason why schools are not electrified, although it does highlight a secondary problem with electrical infrastructure in terms of a lack of maintenance to the distribution thereof impacting on the ability of schools to rely on it for power.

Table 1, Main reason why rural schools are not electrified.

Reason Unsure Never………Always _Mean Score Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Community not electrified 0,0% 4,8% 23,8% 9,5% 33,3% 28,6% 3.57 1 Damaged electrical infrastructure (school/community) 0,0% 14,3% 38,1% 19,0% 14,3% 4,8% 2.29 2 Building not designed/built with electrical installation i.e. No Distribution Board or wiring 4,8% 19,0% 28,6% 14,3% 19,0% 4,8% 2.19 3 Community electrified but no connection to school 0,0% 33,3% 23,8% 14,3% 14,3% 4,8% 2.05 4 No school buildings or buildings unsafe for electrification 9,5% 33,3% 4,8% 38,1% 0,0% 4,8% 1.81 5 Cost of installation unaffordable 4,8% 38,1% 38,1% 4,8% 0,0% 4,8% 1.53 6

When it came to looking at alternatives to the current challenges in electrifying schools in rural areas, respondents overwhelmingly agreed that solar power can be employed the quickest out of all power supply types for the electrification of rural schools. Over 90% of the respondents either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly’ agreed that solar technology can be employed the quickest with a MS of 4.48.

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Table 2, Type of power supply that can be employed quickest for the electrification of rural schools.

Type Unsure

Strongly disagree………Strongly agree Mean

Score Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Solar power 0,0% 0,0% 4,8% 0,0% 14,3% 76,2% 4.48 1 Eskom/Municipal supply 0,0% 28,6% 4,8% 19,0% 28,6% 9,5% 2.57 2 Wind power 14,3% 19,0% 9,5% 4,8% 28,6% 9,5% 2.14 3 Fossil fuel generators 19,0% 19,0% 14,3% 0,0% 14,3% 19,0% 2.00 4 Fuel cell generators 19,0% 19,0% 19,0% 14,3% 9,5% 4,8% 1.62 5

Furthermore, those surveyed overwhelmingly believed that solar would also be the most effective technology for the electrification of rural schools. Over 80% of the respondents chose that it would be ‘effective’ with a MS of 4.33, well ahead of wind power with a MS of 3.19

Table 3, Most effective technology for the electrification of rural schools.

Technology Unsure

Least effective………Most effective

Mean Score Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Solar power 0,0% 0,0% 9,5% 4,8% 28,6% 57,1% 4.33 1 Wind power 4,8% 14,3% 9,5% 4,8% 38,1% 23,8% 3.19 2 Fossil fuel generators 14,3% 28,6% 28,6% 9,5% 9,5% 4,8% 1.76 3 Fuel cell 14,3% 23,8% 38,1% 14,3% 0,0% 4,8% 1.67 4

In addition, two-thirds of those surveyed selected the ‘strongly agree’ option for solar power when asked for the most suitable solution for the electrification of schools for areas without Eskom / Municipal grid electrification, achieving an MS of 4.58. A similar response was received when participants to the study were asked with the available resources, which is the most suitable alternative energy system for the electrification of schools in rural Eastern Cape, a MS of 4.33 being recorded for Solar Power. Furthermore, respondents were asked which alternative energy systems have the most potential to meet the energy requirements and reduce the energy dependence of schools on grid electricity. Here again the highest ranked alternative energy solutions were both solar based, with Solar power being ranked 1st _{with a} MS of 4.76 and Solar water heaters being ranked 2nd _{with an MS of 3.57, slightly ahead of Wind Power.}

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Table 4, Alternative energy solutions with most potential to reduce energy dependence. Alternative energy system Unsure Low………...High Mean Score Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Solar power _{0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 23,8% 76,2% 4,76 1} Solar water heaters 0,0% 0,0% 9,5% 14,3% 38,1% 28,6% 3,57 2 Wind power _{4,8% 4,8% 4,8% 9,5% 33,3% 33,3% 3,43 3} Biogas (schools nutrition &

science labs) _{14,3% 9,5% 0,0% 14,3% 47,6% 9,5% 2,90 4} Fossil fuel generators 9,5% 28,6% 19,0% 14,3% 14,3% 4,8% 1,91 5

It is notable that three-quarters of respondents believed that Solar power has a high potential to reduce the energy dependence especially when viewed against those who are aware of the ‘Regulations relating to minimum uniform norms and standards for public school infrastructure’ in which minimum standards relating to energy provision are listed, including that where no grid connection is available, an alternative source of power should be provided. Only 10 out of the 21 were aware of the legislation. Unfortunately no data was collected on how many of those have proposed the use of an alternative power supply solution in there submission documents although they were asked where no grid connection exists did they allow for an alternative/renewal energy solution and only 19% stated that they did ‘Often or Always’. 33.3% have been involved in a project with the department where renewable energy systems have been specified as the main electrical source (not necessarily a school project).

When asked their opinion on the importance of electrification in addressing the functional activities of a school within a rural / community environment, a large majority consider electricity very important for most of the school functions with mean scores for all the listed school purposes well above the mid-point value of 3.00.

Table 5, Indicative importance of electricity for the following purposes School

Purpose

Unsure

Not important…….Very important

Mean Score Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Computer/internet connectivity 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 4,8% 95,2% 4,95 1 Audio-visual equipment _{0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 23,8% 76,2% 4,76 2} Electronic learning aides _{0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 14,3% 14,3% 71,4% 4,57 3} Office administration 0,0% 0,0% 4,8% 14,3% 23,8% 57,1% 4,33 4 Library 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 14,3% 19,0% 61,9% 4,28 5 Science laboratory _{0,0% 0,0% 14,3% 14,3% 19,0% 52,4% 4,10 6} Classroom activities _{0,0% 0,0% 14,3% 33,3% 28,6% 23,8% 3,62 7} School nutrition 0,0% 9,5% 23,8% 9,5% 23,8% 33,3% 3,47 8

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Respondents were then asked whether learners in rural areas are at a disadvantage compared to their urban counterparts for the following information amenities by not having access to such amenities. Although respondents are not necessarily experts in terms of education of learners, they are all professional persons and therefore have a high level of education as well as experience of the environment in which these schools are situated. It is notable that in addition to libraries being considered to be of major importance as an amenity by more than three-quarters of respondents, the majority of the respondents indicated that they consider learners in rural areas to be at a major disadvantage to all the listed amenities due to the isolation with the MS all greater than 3.7.

Table 6, Extent to which geographical isolation of rural schools disadvantages learners compared to their urban counterparts for the following information amenities.

Amenities Unsure Minor.………..……Major Mean Score Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Municipal libraries 4,8% 0,0% 0,0% 4,8% 14,3% 76,2% 4.53 1 Museums 0,0% 0,0% 4,8% 19,0% 28,6% 42,9% 3.96 2 Theatres 0,0% 0,0% 14,3% 14,3% 23,8% 42,9% 3.81 3 Aquariums, zoo’s, parks, etc. _{0,0% 0,0% 19,0% 14,3% 19,0% 42,9% 3.71 4}

Similarly, when then asked to what extent the internet can act as a substitute information source for these, most respondents at least agree that it can substitute for each of the listed resources and that libraries are ranked the highest and that all are ranked with a mean score of greater than 3.00.

Table 7, Extent to which the internet can act as a substitute information source (video tours, images, web lectures, electronic books, etc.) for urban amenities.

Resource Unsure

Strongly disagree…Strongly agree

Mean Score Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Municipal libraries 0,0% 4,8% 9,5% 14,3% 33,3% 38,1% 3.90 1 Museums 0,0% 9,5% 4,8% 38,1% 23,8% 23,8% 3.48 2 Textbooks 0,0% 9,5% 19,0% 23,8% 9,5% 38,1% 3.47 3 Theatres 0,0% 4,8% 19,0% 33,3% 28,6% 14,3% 3.29 4 Aquariums, zoo’s, parks, etc. 0,0% 9,5% 14,3% 47,6% 19,0% 9,5% 3.04 5

Finally, they were then asked for their opinion on whether web resources could improve learning in rural schools with the use of a range of resources all reliant on electricity or an internet connection. Digital learning material (encyclopaedia, educator guides), Digital media streaming (Discovery Channel, National Geographic) and Digital Textbooks were ranked very closely in 1st, 2nd and 3rd place respectively with over 50% of respondents strongly agreeing that Digital Media Streaming could improve learning.

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Table 8, Extent to which web resources can improve learning in rural schools with the use of the following resources.

Web resource

Unsure

Strongly disagree.…Strongly agree

Mean Score Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Digital learning material (encyclopedia, educator guides, etc) 0,0% 0,0% 9,5% 9,5% 38,1% 42,9% 4,14 1 Digital media streaming (Discovery channel, National Geographic, etc) 0,0% 0,0% 14,3% 9,5% 23,8% 52,4% 4,14 2 Digital textbooks 0,0% 0,0% 9,5% 19,0% 23,8% 47,6% 4,09 3 Web teaching/virtual lessons 4,8% 0,0% 14,3% 9,5% 28,6% 38,1% 3,62 4 Content storage (portals and clouds) 4,8% 4,8% 14,3% 19,0% 19,0% 38,1% 3,57 5

DISCUSSION

According to the October 2014 NEMIS report, there are 23 740 ordinary schools in South Africa: 1 131 of these schools do not have electricity at all. A further 2 773 schools have an unreliable electrical supply. This means just under 5% of the schools in the country are not electrified. Another 11.7% of the schools do not have a reliable electrical supply. The report further provides that in the Eastern Cape Province, which has 5 468 ordinary schools: 377 schools (7%) are not electrified and a further 1 450 have an unreliable electrical supply. However, the data from the survey would appear to suggest that the situation is far worse with over 38% of the respondents putting the percentage of un- electrified schools encountered in the Eastern Cape in the range between 50 – 100%. Over 19% of the respondents indicate that 25 – 50% of the schools they have encountered are not electrified. Although the majority of the schools encountered by these professionals are in rural areas, over 50% of schools in the Eastern Cape are in rural areas and therefore make up the bulk of the 5468 ordinary schools, suggesting that the number of schools encountering problems with respect to a reliable electrical supply is greater than the combined total of 1827 schools deemed to have an unreliable supply.

From the survey, it was established that in areas without grid electricity, alternative energy solutions are not considered in the design scope of schools even though in the South African Schools Act (2013) provision is made that all schools must have some form of power supply and that ‘the forms of power supply may include grid electrical reticulation, generators, solar powered energy or wind powered energy sources’. The research shows that solar and wind power would be the most effective and suitable renewable energy system should this be included as an option in the scope of works.

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Over 90% of the respondents indicated that solar power can be employed the quickest when compared with other sources (including grid electricity) for the electrification of rural schools. Over 80% of the respondents deemed solar power as either ‘effective’ or ‘most effective’ for the electrification of rural schools. Respondents indicated that the main reason why schools are not