11. ESTUDIO ORGANIZACIONAL
11.3 ANÁLISIS LEGAL
11.3.2 Modelo de acto de constitución y estatutos
New roads affect several urban spatial dimensions such as accessibility, social equity, economic performance, health, pollution and ecology (Williams, 2005, p. 1). These dimensions largely depend on the urban form and its land use. In this regard, there are two spatial views about urban forms in terms of urban and suburban development (ibid). One is the ‘moving in approach’ which reduces sprawl by creating compact cities whereas the other is ‘moving out approach’ which increases sprawl. Both approaches largely depend on the dynamics of three main urban phenomena: urban and suburban development, land development and transport network development (Table 1).
32 Urban development, land development and transport network development
Urban and suburban development spatial patterns determine the size and shape of a city. The shape, density and configuration of cities, as a result of urban and suburban development, have been widely debated in the planning literature (Breheny, 1992; De Roo & Miller, 2000; Williams, Burton, & Jenks, 2000). In this debate, the spatial impacts of a city form on transport have been the prime concern of researchers (Williams, 2005, p. 1). It is argued that roads-building affects transport patterns by creating three types of cities: compact cities, quasi-compact cities and non-compact cities.
Urban zones may be classified into five main categories: residential, commercial, industrial, spatial and mixed residential-commercial. In compact cities, travel demand is reduced through having mixed-use development and compact urban form. Through this type of land development, called moving-in approach, people can work close to their residences and public transport is encouraged (ibid). The moving-out approach either creates quasi-compact or non-compact urban spatial land use. In quasi-compact cities, urban layouts are developed in close proximity to the functional land use zoning which reduces travel demand (ibid). Suburban development, therefore, takes place but on a limited scale and close to the city.
In non-compact land uses, the suburbs are developed through greater suburban connectivity which reduces population density by increasing urban sprawl and travel demand through greater distances between people’s work place and residence. Therefore, roads investment shapes and changes land-uses (Trombulak & Frissell, 2000). These landscape changes evolve new spatial patterns (Irwin & Bockstael, 2002) involving new housing schemes and commercial and educational areas. The new spatial patterns attract population and businesses to move into new suburbs which ultimately promote urban sprawl. However, Williamson (2010, p. 29) argues that roads shape urban sprawl alongside promoting economic development in the form of land development for better economic usage.
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This is arguably so because land development performs four functions (Dowall, 1993). First, it brings buyers and sellers together to facilitate transactions. Second, it sets and increases land prices. Third, it ensures that the quantity of land offered is equal to the quantity of land demanded. Fourth, land prices ensure that the land is efficiently used. This suggests that roads expansion influences the real estate market from several different dimensions including transport network development. In compact cities, transport networks prioritise public transport and active transport. The same type of transport network may also be effective in quasi- compact land use in which work-places may still be closer to the workers’ residences. However, non-compact land use increases distances resulting in a different type of transport network development in which travel demand is high. This type of transport network promotes private car dependence. However, the real estate market works differently in developed and developing countries. In developed countries, new roads network may achieve additional economic growth benefits (Banister & Berechman, 2001). However, in developing countries, roads expansion is considered a critical factor for achieving economic growth (Taaffe et al., 1963).
Nelson et al. (2004) find that despite spatial externalities, the improvement of roads is quite common in developing countries because these countries blindly follow developed countries. As shown in Table 1, the literature shows that spatial externalities, similar to economic, social and environmental externalities, are also understood on an individual basis rather than treating them all as contextual challenges in relating roads investment with economic growth.
Table 1: Summary of literature review on relationship between roads investment and economic growth
Links Research (references) Explanation
Economic development links
Better efficiency
Travel time saving Congestion relief
Aschauer (1989, 1990); Banister and Berechman (2001); Bartik (1991); Baumol (1967); Boarnet (1998); Cervero and Duncan (2006); Crihfield and Panggabean (1995);
Better efficiency depend on factors such as travel time saving, congestion relief and better accessibility. The role of transport in
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Accessibility Decrease in cost
Travel cost of individual and freight
Production costs Public service costs Jobs creation and Jobs/housing balance Attraction for private investment and skilled labour
Impacts on local and regional economy
Dahlman (1979); Dalenberg and Partridge (1995); Downs (2004); Duffy-Deno and Eberts (1991); Erenberg (1993); Evans and Karras (1994); Garcia-Mila et al. (1996); Giuliano (1991); Lakshmanan et al. (2001); Lee and Kim (2014); Loo and Chow (2011); Metz (2004); Mohring et al. (1987); Prasetyo et al. (2003); Pereira (2001); Seitz (2000); Taaffe, et al. (1963); Verhoef (1994); Weisbrod (2008); Yamano and
Ohkawara (2000); Zhou et al. (2012).
decreasing costs is controversial. Decrease in public service costs mainly depends on travel cost of individual / freight, production cost and public service cost. Other factors affecting economic growth include jobs-housing balance, attraction for private investment and positive impacts of local/regional economy.
Social development links
Eroding public spaces / social and recreational services
Displacement Housing affordability Consumer preferences Health impacts
Adey (2010); Agran et al. (1996); Cernea (1995); Cox (1973); Ewing et al. (2003); Geurs et al. (2009); Gentile et al. (2012); Glaeser and Gyourko (2003);
Lakshmanan et al. (2001); Marx (2002); McDonald (2007); Mattingly and Morrissey (2014); Myers (1975); Quigley and Raphael (2005); Rienstra et al. (1999); Song et al. (2007); Terminski (2015); Turton (2002).
Most of the social externalities of roads are negative. Roads deplete urban public places and social and recreational services. Roads building may cause people’s displacement and affect their ability to buy houses as per their preferences. Car culture may promote health problems.
Environmental development links
Pollution impacts Green space impacts
Ball et al. (1998); Davison (1971); Forbes (1992); Gastaldi et al. (2007); Germann-Chiari and Seeland (2004); Haigh et al. (1995); Kearsley (1990); Larwood and Markham (1995); Martin et al. (2004); Pauleit et al. (2005); Santos et al. (2010); Singh et al. (2010); Spellerberg (1998); Verhoef (1994); Ward et al. (1974); Watkins (1981); Westing (1969); Yli-Pelkonen and Niemelä (2005). The environmental externalities largely consist of their pollution and green spaces impacts. These impacts affect the environment from several dimensions. They damage the physical environment, wildlife, plants and even glaciers together leaving negative external impacts on the environment.
Land use/spatial planning links
Urban and suburban development
Banister and Berechman (2001); Breheny (1992); De Roo and Miller (2000); Dowall (1993); Frissell
New roads affect several spatial urban dimensions such as accessibility, social
35 Land development Transport network development (2000); Nelson et al. (2004); Taaffe et al. (1963);
Trombulak and Williamson (2010); Williams (2005); Williams et al. (2000).
equity and spatial performance. These dimensions largely depend on the urban form and its land use.
Source: the author based on Chohan, et al. (2011)