It is thought that water polo was originally known as ‘aquatic polo’ in England, evolving in the 1860s from activities titled ‘Water Derbies’, where participants fought for possession of a ball while mounted on wooden barrels.482 The sport was originally invented in England as an additional attraction for spectators attending swimming carnivals.483 However, it was also an attraction for the swimmers who competed in these carnivals. Love states that from the 1870s in England, swimmers began to look beyond simple racing, and wanted to partake in other methods of aquatic amusement.484 Therefore, water polo became a popular and regular feature of carnival programs, with the added benefit that it catered for older men who were unable to be competitive in the speed swimming events.485
As Rockwell suggests, early water polo matches in Australia were also placed on carnival programs primarily for their entertainment value.486 Certainly in Melbourne, given the varying conditions of the sea, water polo was initially construed as somewhat farcical in itself. In windy conditions and heavy swell, matches often resembled an aquatic comedy, with a report in 1897 painting a comedic picture of one such match:
… if one of them failed to catch the ball the crest of a heavy wave usually succeeded, and the next minute it might have been seen floating 30 yards or more away, and the players gazing vacantly round them in the hollow of the
480
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 16 January 1897, p. 124.
481
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 28 January 1899, p. 189.
482
Rockwell, Water Warriors, p. 25.
483
Rockwell, Water Warriors, p. 25.
484
Love, A Social History of Swimming in England, p. 11.
485
Love, A Social History of Swimming in England, p. 25.
486
waters, and wondering where in thunder that ball had got to. It was amusing, but it was not polo.487
The official date of the first water polo match in Australia is unknown, but the game was reportedly played from the 1880s in Sydney,488 with a Sydney Morning Herald report stating that a match was played at a Port Jackson club carnival on 19 February 1881.489 It is unknown when water polo in Melbourne commenced, but the 1893 St Kilda Swimming Club carnival report in the Argus noted that ‘the proceedings wound up with a football match in the water, which proved very amusing …’.490 This particular game established something of a carnival ritual, which would later become known as water polo. Initially these games were lighthearted in nature, conducted in fancy dress and received extraordinary billing, such as ‘Brighton vs. The World’,491 but they soon became a much more serious event on the carnival program. Initially swimming clubs would combine forces and compete against each other, but eventually this practice was discontinued as clubs began to field their own teams.
It appears that water polo began to occupy a regular spot on carnival programs from the beginning of the 1894/95 season. Just six weeks after its inception, the Melbourne club had formed a team, playing a combined Middle Park and Middle Brighton team at their first carnival.492 This early match was received favourably in press coverage, dubbed both amusing and interesting, with the Australasian suggesting that the association institute a championship series for water polo. Their view was that it would not only interest the public, but also ‘disseminate a little of that club rivalry which is the life of sport’.493 The press described the early rules of water polo on numerous occasions as being very similar to those of Australian Rules football, and early match reports praised players for their superior ‘marking’ of the ball.494
487
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 16 January 1897, p. 124.
488
Katharine Moore, ‘Water Polo’, in Wray Vamplew, Katharine Moore, John O’Hara, Richard Cashman and Ian Jobling (eds), The Oxford Companion to Australian Sport (Revised Second Edition), Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1997, p. 453.
489
Rockwell, Water Warriors, p. 30.
490
‘Swimming’, Argus, 11 December 1893, p .6.
491
‘Aquatic Carnival at Brighton’, Age, 20 February 1894, p. 7.
492
‘Melbourne Swimming Club’, Argus, 26 November 1894, p. 7.
493
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 1 December 1894, p. 992.
494
Given the English origins of the game, it is uncertain whether these Melbourne games followed the rules of the Swimming Association of Great Britain (SAGB), who had assumed responsibility for the governance of water polo in 1885 and subsequently introduced a set of eleven rules. The rules specified that players had to swim with the ball in their hands or out in front of them, with the ball not allowed to be thrown.495 These rules were further revised in 1888, where the width of the goalposts was revised to be eight feet wide and six feet high, and players were required to be swimming when ‘passing or playing the ball’.496
The game was referred to as polo in the media from late 1894, with the primary swimming clubs fielding teams, and in most cases it became the concluding event on carnival programs.497 In time, it was expected that Melbourne swimming clubs would assemble a water polo team upon their formation. Results of the water polo matches each week were reported on faithfully, with ladder positions appearing in the Australasian from early 1896 onward. Such was its popularity that at the commencement of the 1895/96 season the correspondent for the Australasian noted:
It seems a pity that our association should not draw up a regular list of fixtures for the polo matches, and establish a premiership on a proper basis, as the public last season were quite beginning to catch on to the points of the game. Matches might have been going on all this month, and would have assisted considerably to bring the club men into condition for the December racing, and have been working up the interest of the public.498
It was decided at VASA’s December 1895 meeting that honour caps would be awarded to the 1894/95 premiership team, Melbourne Swimming Club, further signifying their commitment to water polo. Melbourne, at the beginning of the 1895/96 season, was even assessing the viability of entering two water polo teams for that competition.499 The importance of water polo in drawing a crowd to swimming carnivals was further reinforced by VASA’s decision to include a polo tournament in their fundraising gala in 1896, promoted by the Australasian correspondent as the ‘leading fixture’. His view was that the provision of three games in an afternoon, as
495
Rockwell, Water Warriors, p. 26.
496
Rockwell, Water Warriors, p. 27.
497
‘Melbourne Swimming Club’, Argus, 16 November, 1894, p. 7.
498
‘Unda’, Swimming’, Australasian, 23 November 1895, p. 987.
499
VASA had planned, would give the public a good chance to understand some of the rules of the game a little better.500
While Rockwell states that water polo was often relegated to secondary status on early New South Wales carnival programs, particularly in the face of competitive swimming events offering prize money,501 it became a favourite with Melbourne carnival spectators. Press coverage of water polo matches began to be more analytical than descriptive, with writers assessing the skill of the teams and providing detailed commentary. In most cases, this commentary was depicted more comprehensively than that of the swimming events. Running commentary was given by some press correspondents in their columns, identifying the proficient players and in some cases explaining certain aspects of the game. By the middle of the 1896 season, the Leader correspondent reported that the Middle Park club was in the process of forming a second team, and other rural clubs had expressed some interest in joining the competition.502 The standard of the competing teams was relatively similar, resulting in some close competitions, which further increased its appeal. Confirming its popularity, the Leader correspondent stated that:
Little doubt seems to be entertained that with the spectators at ‘Ladies’ days or even at ordinary meetings, one of the most popular items on the programme is the water polo match. Under present arrangements, this is always left until the very last thing, and takes place at a time when the greater portion of the audience, after being in the baths all afternoon, are evincing a very natural desire to be on the move homewards. It may therefore be worth the while of the committees of the various clubs to consider the alviaibility [sic] of placing it further up on the list.503
The Australasian correspondent shared a similar view, stating that the water polo ‘is to me and many others about the most interesting part of the programme, and it always seems a pity it should always be left to the “bitter end” of the programme’.504 The problem with this proposition, although a valid one, was that the polo teams were made up primarily of swimmers, who would potentially want to reserve their energy for the racing events.505 The progress of the sport was further hindered by the lack of uniform rules, as the Australasian correspondent commented in 1896 that the
500
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 18 January 1896, p. 115.
501
Rockwell, Water Warriors, p. 19.
502
‘Header’, ‘Swimming’, Leader, 8 February 1896, p. 15.
503
‘Header’, ‘Swimming’, Leader, 8 February 1896, p. 15.
504
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 25 January 1896, p. 162.
505
Victorian rules had not yet been circulated to clubs, which resulted in a number of infringements. The implication was that VASA needed to be more supportive of the water polo movement.506
Press coverage of the various polo matches continued to raise negative aspects of the sport, though only for the purpose of improvement. The Sportsman noted in 1896 that ‘it would be advisable in future to have the goal-posts about fifteen yards from the end, so as to secure deep water’, after a match at Collingwood was played in shallow water.507 However, the game was still in its infancy in some regional areas. The Western club’s 1896 carnival in Geelong was meant to feature an exhibition water polo match, given by assorted members of the city clubs. The Western club, however, were unable to secure a football to use as the game ball, and so the match was abandoned.508 It is uncertain which type of football the press correspondent was referring to.
It appears that VASA heeded the suggestions of the various press correspondents, as water polo became increasingly more standardised. At the conclusion of the 1895/96 season, it had been decided that if any player held the ball for longer than 30 seconds, the umpire should award the ball to the other team.509 At the commencement of the 1896/97 season, a number of new rules were established, and published in the Leader. Some notable observations include the reduction of players in each team from 10 to 9, whose positions were listed as two forwards, two centres, two backs, two rovers and a goal keeper, and marks were not to be given if the ball was thrown less than three yards. The Leader also drew attention to the type of ball that was to be used in games, recommending that clubs obtain one early, instead of reverting to the ‘ordinary’ football.510 Exact specifications for the type of ball that should be used were not given, though the Australasian stated that ‘an Association, that is round, football, is used’.511 This is similar to the five-inch India rubber ball that was used in early water polo games in England.512
506
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 15 February 1896, p. 307.
507
‘Swimming’, Sportsman, 3 March 1896, p. 2.
508
‘Header’, ‘Swimming’, Leader, 21 March 1896, p. 18.
509
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 29 February 1896, p. 401.
510
‘Header’, ‘Swimming’, Leader, 5 December 1896, p. 18.
511
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 5 December 1896, p. 1114.
512
The 1896/97 season draw and the general requirements for teams were listed in the Australasian in December 1896. Three referees were elected to officiate for the season, and clubs were required to pay an entrance fee of 5s per team, to fund the premiership prize. VASA also recommended the adoption of the water polo cap that was currently being used in the Sydney competition, as it was seen that most of the clubs could afford to have these produced in club colours for approximately 1s per cap. These caps were similar to those used today, covering the head and tying under the chin, with slits through which the ears were placed. A number of new teams were also welcomed at the commencement of this season, with the Middle Park, Melbourne, Brighton, Hobson’s Bay, South Melbourne and Collingwood clubs all fielding teams.513 Some of these clubs began to take the water polo competition more seriously, with the South Melbourne club instituting practices each morning during the season.514
The Australasian was dedicated to promoting the water polo movement, and in their columns went as far as recommending local clubs that prospective players should join. They also provided a general synopsis of the rules to entice swimmers to take up the game, likening it to another popular team sport in Melbourne:
Polo is so like Victorian football that a knowledge of the game is readily acquired, and though the time is usually limited to seven minutes each way, they are 14 minutes crowded with excitement and exercise. An Association, that is round, football is used, and the swimmers have to throw or punch this through the goals provided at each end. As in football, players can obtain marks, or free throws, by catching the ball at a distance of not less than three yards from the thrower. Teams are only nine men aside, so that it only needs a few swimming friends to get together to form a team. Speed, no doubt, is an advantage, as it is in football, but the speediest men do not necessarily make the best polo players, and want of racing ability need in no way discourage the practice of the game. There is much in good throwing, in catching, in dodging, marking your opponents, and so on.515
While most clubs fielded teams, they were often unable to assemble the required number of starters and consequently a lot of walkovers were awarded. The Australasian correspondent attributed this to the weekend play (and perhaps their clashing with the racing programs), questioning whether the polo contests could be
513
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 5 December 1896, p. 1114.
514
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 19 December 1896, p. 1219.
515
held on a regular evening during the week.516 This innovation was not taken up, however, and the problem continued throughout the season. With the damage already done, the Australasian correspondent began to name names, in one column denigrating three prominent Melbourne club members who failed to turn up for their match, declaring that:
It shows such an utter lack of interest by those who are especially looked to to set an example, and the polo competition, already seriously jeopardised by the action of the South Melbourne and other clubs in not sending teams, will be ruined if steps are not at once taken to prevent a recurrence of such incidents.517
A later incident also resulting in a walkover drew the ire of the Leader correspondent, who was usually more reticent in doling out criticism, stating that:
A good match was looked forward to between these clubs, and it is decidedly unfair to patrons of the sport to allow these matches to go by default. Several breaches of faith have occurred this year, and if the association wish the game to take the prominence they spoke of in the early part of the season they should legislate for some penalty to be inflicted, say a fine of 5s. on the club failing to keep their engagement.518
By the conclusion of the 1896/97 season, the Australasian correspondent was thoroughly fed up, stating that ‘the association would, I think, do well to cancel the premiership for the season. The competition … has become hopelessly muddled up, and the association may as well keep the cost of the (premiership) caps in their own nearly empty coffers’.519 Clubs continued to give walkovers and there were frequent reports of rule breaches by large numbers of players. It would appear also that the game began to become rougher, and after one particular contest the Leader correspondent remarked that ‘a little more patience on the part of some of the players, who forgot they were playing a friendly polo match, might be recommended’.520
Despite these problems, and given the popularity of the game, which was still reportedly rising in 1897, the Australasian published the rules to an English game which was being promoted as rivalling the attraction of water polo. Entitled ‘Capture’, the game was trialled in Melbourne and found most exciting by participants and
516
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 26 December 1896, p. 1271.
517
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 23 January 1897, p. 172.
518
‘Running Header’, ‘Swimming’, Leader, 13 March 1897, p. 18.
519
‘Unda’, ‘Swimming’, Australasian, 13 March 1897, p. 515.
520
onlookers. The game was touted as being less objectionable than water polo, while still ‘adding to the attractions of galas, and affording means of giving outlet to fast swimming, tricky work, diving, catching, and carrying, and handling struggling swimmers in the water’.521 However, nothing more of the game was heard of after this, indicating that it was not seen as a selling point.
At the commencement of the 1897/98 season, the Australasian correspondent once more implored clubs to turn up with full teams. He attributed the walkovers of last season to the ‘important cricket matches, and the difficulty of getting those who have been racing to turn out at the end of a gala for polo’, and once more put forward his view that the polo matches should be held on a mid-week evening.522 Only five teams entered for the 1897/98 championship, with Brighton electing not to put forward a team.523 Despite the correspondent’s hopes that this season would be relatively free of team walkovers, Melbourne failed to assemble a team for their first round match, once more prompting some suggestive advice in the following week’s column:
Tempora mutantur. Collingwood last year could hardly raise a polo team at all. Last Saturday they won a match, but Melbourne, with its membership of three figures, cannot raise a team, and have, I understand, virtually withdrawn from the competition. The fault lies with the members, not the committee. If three or four men would practice regularly, others would, no doubt, be found to join in. Why not seek for aid among the less speedy swimmers? It is not the fastest