2. ESTUDIO DE ALTERNATIVAS
2.3. E MPLAZAMIENTO DE LOS AEROGENERADORES
Salk Biological Research Institute, La Jolla, California, Louis Kahn General Motors Technical Center, Warren, Michigan, Eero Saarinen Deere & Company Administrative Center, Moline, Illinois, Eero Saarinen Dulles Airport, Chantilly, Virginia, Eero Saarinen
TWA Terminal, JFK International Airport, Eero Saarinen Dodge Half-Ton Truck Factory, Detroit, Albert Kahn Dorton Arena, North Carolina, Matthew Nowicki
1
John Jacobus, Jr., Philip Johnson (New York: George Braziller, 1962), 15-16.
2
Thomas A. P. Van Leeuwen, “The Skyward Trend of Thought: Some Ideas on the History of the Methodology of the Skyscraper,” in American Architecture: Innovation and Tradition. David G. Delong, et al, eds., New York: Rizzoli, 1986.
3
The building also featured a two-story castellated tower. See Richard Webster, Philadelphia Preserved (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1976), 81.
4
The first elevator or “steam lift” was developed in 1857 by Elisha Graves Otis and installed in the five- story Haughwout Building (1956-1957) in New York. The steam lift was introduced to Chicago in 1864. C. W. Baldwin invented the first hydraulic lift in 1870.
5
Henry-Russell Hitchcock, Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (New York: Penguin Books, 1958, Reprint, 1985), 335.
6
Le Baron Jenney’s second Leiter building, completed in 1880, is a National Historic Landmark.
7
William H. Jordy, American Buildings and Their Architects: Progressive and Academic Ideals at the Turn of the Century (New York: Doubleday & Company, 1972), 38.
8
Jordy, American Buildings and Their Architects: The Impact of European Modernism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 59.
9
The Chicago Tribune Tower was erected in 1923-1925 on Michigan Avenue.
10
Ada Louis Huxtable describes the difference between modern skyscrapers, the avant-garde International Style borrowed from Europe, and the modernistic, which we now refer to as Art Moderne or Deco. See Ada Louis Huxtable, The Tall Building Artistically Reconsidered: the Search for a Skyscraper Style (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982), 39-44.
11
Marcus Whiffen and Frederick Koeper, American Architecture: 1860-1976 (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1987), 337. 12 Hitchcock, Architecture, 622. 13 Hitchcock, Architecture, 561. 14
One of the most widely praised skyscrapers of the 1960s is the Ford Foundation (1967), New York, Kevin Roche, John Dinkeloo & Associates. Architectural historian Carter Wiseman remarks that it “made a major contribution to humanizing modernism,” with its public atrium visible from the street. According to Wiseman, the firm’s later buildings did not live up to this standard. See Wiseman, Shaping a Nation, 319.
15
AIA Journal (July 1976): 152.
16
Ada Louise Huxtable, “Skyscrapers,” in Built in the U.S.A. Diane Maddex, ed. Washington, D.C.: National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1985.
17
Vincent Scully, “American Houses: Thomas Jefferson to Frank Lloyd Wright,” in Edgar Kaufmann, Jr., ed., The Rise of an American Architecture (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970), 163-164.
18
James F. O’Gorman, Three American Architects: Richardson, Sullivan, and Wright, 1865-1915 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 58-59.
19
O’Gorman, Three American Architects, 59.
20
Carter Wiseman, Twentieth-Century American Architecture: The Buildings and Their Makers (New York: W.W. Norton, 2000), 77.
21
Scully, “American Houses,” 186.
22
For more information about the textile houses, particularly La Minatura, see Neil Levine, The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 114-169.
23
The house was designed for Philip Lovell, a “naturopath” who practiced medicine without drugs and had acquired a large public following. See Thomas S. Hines, Richard Neutra and the Search for Modern Architecture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 89.
24
F.R.S. Yorke, The Modern House (Great Britain: The Architectural Press, 1935), 208.
25
Marcus Whiffen and Frederick Koeper, American Architecture, Volume 2: 1860-1976 (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987), 343.
26
Wiseman, Twentieth-Century American Architecture, 278.
27
Alice T. Friedman, Women and the Making of the Modern House (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998), 134.
28
Whiffen and Koeper, 374.
29
Diana Ketcham, “A Sea Change Where the View Once Ruled,” New York Times (Thursday, May 31, 2001), B1.
30
Phoebe Stanton, “Religious Architecture,” in Built in the U.S.A. (Washington, D.C.: National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1985), 141.
31
O’Gorman, Three American Architects, 25.
32
Cram was “considered the foremost church architect in the United States in the first decades of the twentieth century” and “firmly believed in the need to search the past for inspiration for new buildings….” See Marilyn J. Chiat, America’s Religious Architecture (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1997), 120.
33
Jordy, American Buildings and Their Architects, vol. 5: The Impact of European Modernism in the Mid- Twentieth Century, 303.
34
Hitchcock, Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, 451.
35
See Joseph M. Siry, Unity Temple: Frank Lloyd Wright and Architecture for Liberal Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 245-6.
36
Albert Christ-Janer and Mary Mix Foley, Modern Church Architecture (New York: McGraw Hill Books, 1962), 257.
37
Christ-Janer and Foley, Modern Church Architecture, 153. The authors cite a “poll of 35 leading architects, editors, and specialists in church design, conducted by the National Council of Churches,” that
“voted Christ Lutheran in Minneapolis the best church erected in the United States during the preceding 25 years.”
38
Christ-Janer and Foley, Modern Religious Architecture, 103.
39
Neil Levine, Frank Lloyd Wright, 425.
40
Siry, Unity Temple, 244.
41
William Allin Storrer, The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright (Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press, 1974), 399.
42
Mark Gelernter, 275-276.
43
Marcus Whiffen and Frederick Koeper, American Architecture, volume 2, 382.
44
Henry Russell Hitchcock, The Pelican History of Art, 569.
45
John M. Jacobus, Jr. Philip Johnson (New York: George Braziller, 1962), 41.
46
Thomas S. Hines, Richard Neutra and the Search for Modern Architecture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 287.
47
David B. Brownlee and David G. DeLong, Louis I. Kahn: In the Realm of Architecture (New York: Rizzoli International Publications, 1991), 143.
48
Belluschi became the dean of MIT’s architecture department in 1951, and was awarded the A.I.A. gold medal in 1972. For more information about his life and religious buildings see Meredith L. Clausen, Pietro Belluschi: Modern American Architect (Cambridge, Massachusetts: the MIT Press), 1994.
49
Stimpson, A Field Guide to Landmarks of Modern Architecture in the United States, 208.
50
Carole Rifkind, Contemporary American Architecture, 199.
51
Paul Venable Turner, Campus: An American Planning Tradition (New York, 1984), 19-20.
52
Turner, Campus, 227.
53
Carter Wiseman, Shaping a Nation, 131.
54
The Wrightian buildings at Florida Southern College include Annie Merner Pfeiffer Chapel (1938), T. R. Roux Library (1941), Three Seminar Buildings (1940), Industrial Arts Building (1942), Administration Building (1945), Science and Cosmography Building (1953) and Minor Chapel (Danforth Chapel), 1954. Buildings not connected by esplanades were added later and are by other architects. See William Allin Storrer, The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1987), 251.
55
John Jacobus, Jr., Philip Johnson (NY: George Braziller, 1962), 35.
56
Paul Venable Turner, Campus: An American Planning Tradition, 267.
57
Scully, American Architecture and Urbanism, 208-9.
58
Rupert Spade, Eero Sarrinen (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1971), 122.
59
Whiffen and Koeper, American Architecture, vol. 2, 391-393. Rudolph also designed the Married Students Housing for Yale in 1961.
60
Scully, American Architecture and Urbanism, 208.
61
Wiffen and Koeper, American Architecture, 405.
62
Gowans, Styles and Types of North American Architecture, 313.
63
Leland M. Roth, A Concise History of Modern Architecture, 308.
64
Roth, A Concise History, 309.
65
Jordy, The Impact of European Modernism in the Mid-Twentieth Century, 167.
66
Gaines, The Campus as a Work of Art, 63.
67
“College Buildings: St. John’s, Science and Art in a Venerable Setting,” Architectural Record, vol. 126, no. 3 (September 1959): 176-179.
68
Jordy, The Impact of European Modernism, 382.
69
Alan Gowans, Styles and Types of North American Architecture (New York: Harper/Collins, 1992), 306.
70
Turner, 271, Campus.
71
The firm of MLTW/Turnbull Associates & Charles W. Moore Associates worked on the project in the early 70s.
72
Mildred F. Schmertz, ed. Campus Planning and Design, 147.
73
Turner, Campus, 266.
74
Helen Searing, New American Art Museums (New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1982), 27. In the 1990s the Wadsworth Athenaeum was renovated beyond recognition. Only the original façade remains.
75
76
James F. O’Gorman, The Architecture of Frank Furness (Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1973), 37.
77
Searing, New American Art Museums, 38.
78
For a brief description of the Springfield Museum of Fine Arts (originally the Gray Museum) See Searing, New American Art Museums, 44-47.
79
Carol Rifkind, A Field Guide to Contemporary American Architecture (New York: Dutton, 1998), 155.
80
See “Theme 4: The Modern College Campus” for further discussion of the Yale Art Gallery addition.
81
Rifkind, A Field Guide, 158.
82
Searing, New American Art Museums, 56.
83
John M. Jacobus, Jr. (New York: George Braziller, 1962), 37.
84
Paul Goldberger, New Yorker (December 23 and 30, 2002), 159. Goldberger’s praise of the Kimball Art Museum is particularly significant in relation to his general opinion of 1960s-1970s museums: “If the museums are the keys to what our communities value…they present a confused picture of the American community right now…There is little in the way of a consistent philosophy, either of museum management or of architecture that one can glean from this potpourri [of museum designs].” See Helen Searing, New American Art Museums, 56.
85
In Modern Architecture Through Case Studies, Peter Blundell Jones writes that the “breadth of concerns” addressed by the Kimball Art Museum “has few rivals this century: Wright, Aalto and Asplund come to mind, and Le Corbusier in late works like La Tourette. See Jones, Modern Architecture (Oxford: Architectural Press, 2002), 229.
86