Recruitment of quality teachers and their initial teacher preparation continues to be high on the political agenda. Dissatisfaction with the quality of graduate
60 teachers has for some time been of concern by employment bodies and
principals (Abbott-Chapman, 2005; Goe & Stickler, 2008; Harrell et al., 2004; Hattie, 2003a; Ingvarson, 2002, 2005; Ingvarson et al., 2006; Treagust et al., 2015). Universities and providers of ITE programs strive to provide the holistic approach needed to support pre-service teachers in their theoretical and practical teaching and learning. This requires a working partnership between the university and schools to provide quality practicum or Professional Experience opportunities that align with the theoretical teachings of the university, a task many universities are having difficulty in achieving (Bullough & Kauchak, 2010; Ingvarson, 2005; Long et al., 2012; Parker et al., 2012).
Pre-service teachers report insufficient teacher preparation with respect to the foundation of meeting the rigours of the teaching profession, for example, from creating effective learning spaces to working in partnership with parents (Abbott- Chapman, 2005; Fazio & Volante, 2011; C. Gardner & Williamson, 2007;
Ingvarson, 2005). Pre-service teachers that undertake programs that provide them with a deep understanding of what they are to help students learn, develop skills in determining students’ prior knowledge, planning activities, and student assessment, and consider themselves well prepared for the realities of the classroom (Ingvarson, 2005). The value of theoretical professional preparation of classroom teachers is often questioned by pre-service teachers in light of the value of practical learning. Ingvarson (2005) found that although there is a broad variation in the quality of ITE programs, the value of them remains indisputable.
61 Professional structures
Table 12.
Overview of the research relevant to professional structures.
Literature topic Author/s, Year
Role of the colleague teacher
(Brouwers & Tomic, 2010; Bullough & Kauchak, 2010; Bullough & Young, 2002; Darling- Hammond & Bransford, 2005; Darling-Hammond et al., 2005)
Workplace environment
(Bullough, 2002; Bullough et al., 2004; Carter & Francis, 2001; Ginns et al., 2001; P. Hudson, 2013; B. Johnson, Down, Le Cornu, Peters, Sullivan, Pearce, et al., 2010; Lang, 2001; Long et al., 2012; McCormack & Thomas, 2003; Newman, 2010; Pietsch & Williamson, 2009; T. Smith & Ingersoll, 2004)
Mentoring and staff support
(Athanases et al., 2008; Bullough, 2005; Clarke & Sheridan, 2017; Ginns et al., 2001; Martinez, 2004; T. Smith & Ingersoll, 2004)
62 Although Bullough (2002) noted that a belief exists that ‘to teach is to work in isolation, to plan lessons alone, solve problems alone and to stand alone in front of the classroom and to talk at children’ (p. 67), collaboration is critical to teacher success. It has been proposed that teachers with strong self-efficacy elicit support from colleagues and principals (Brouwers & Tomic, 2010). As Professional
Experience is a highly valued and a formative component of initial teacher preparation, the dual role of the colleague teacher as a source of support and that of the assessor is critical to early teaching success (Bullough et al., 2003). Equally important is the partnership between schools and universities and the role they have in transforming schooling and teaching for both students and teachers (Bullough & Kauchak, 2010; Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005).
The employment context (full-time, casual, contract) which graduate teachers find themselves in, plays a significant role in the successful development of their working knowledge base (Pietsch & Williamson, 2009). Using this knowledge base to promote successful outcomes for students is challenging in light of the demands of accountability for student performance. This accountability is a disturbing prospect for many graduate teachers with pressure to see their teaching quality directly reflected in student outcomes. Pre-service teachers face criticism and questions related to classroom readiness and teacher quality. Much of this negative discourse fails to acknowledge the complex realities of the classroom (Bullough, 2002).
These complexities of early career teaching are contextual in nature and impact on the success of the commencing teachers. This is often through the dominant values, beliefs, norms, ethos, behaviours and school routines reflected in the school culture. Graduate teachers embraced by supportive school cultures and learning environments that nurture students and teachers are better able to navigate the demands of the classroom (B. Johnson, Down, Le Cornu, Peters, Sullivan, Pearce, et al., 2010). The mentoring and support offered in such schools
63 is critical to beginning teacher success (Bullough & Draper, 2004; Carter &
Francis, 2001; P. Hudson, 2013; Long et al., 2012; T. Smith & Ingersoll, 2004).
It is widely acknowledged that at least the first year of teaching is an important period in any teacher’s professional growth (Ginns et al., 2001; Lang, 2001; McCormack & Thomas, 2003). Early school and classroom experiences may promote or inhibit the desire to commit to a long-term teaching career and successful experiences can contribute to developing positive self-efficacy. This may then translate to confidence in facing the perceived challenges of the profession such as planning and delivery of curriculum, assessment, reporting and behaviour management (Ginns et al., 2001).
Early experiences that leave beginning teachers feeling unsupported or unable to access support structures within their schools, may be detrimental to a beginning teacher’s ongoing success (Lang, 2001; McCormack & Thomas, 2003; Newman, 2010). This reportedly occurs in a number of curriculum areas and professional contexts, making success at this crucial time difficult to experience (Ginns et al., 2001). While some pre-service teachers may seek support actively through university mentors, colleague teachers and social media networks with peers (Hutchison, 2012), some beginning teachers may not be able to access such avenues for support. Although the provision of support is often afforded to permanent teachers in some schools through informal mentoring and participation in collegial activities which strengthen their position within the school community, casual teachers are rarely able to access these structures (Pietsch & Williamson, 2009). As many graduate teachers start their career in this fractured context, they are denied the required support at a time when it is most critical to their professional learning (Carter & Francis, 2001).
There are a number of ways in which beginning teachers may be supported. An investigation by Ginns et al.(2001) indicates that participating in action research during the first year of teaching may provide one means of supporting beginning
64 teachers and augment their professional growth. Other researchers in Australia and internationally have focused on the utilisation and success of teacher mentors (Athanases et al., 2008; Bullough, 2005; Clarke & Sheridan, 2017; P. Hudson, 2013; Hutchison, 2012; Long et al., 2012; Martinez, 2004; T. Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Lang (2001) determined that collaborative planning with experienced teachers, supportive colleague teacher relationships and strong organisation and time management skills enhanced the development of efficacy in beginning teachers.
65 Professional culture
Table 13.
Overview of the research relevant to professional culture.
Literature topic Author/s, Year
Student, staff and parent relationships
(Bullough & Draper, 2004; Carter & Francis, 2001; B. Johnson, Down, Le Cornu, Peters, Sullivan, & Hunter, 2010; A. Peralta, 2005; Rhodes, Nevill, et al., 2004; Spilt et al., 2011; Stoddard et al., 2011)
Professional development
(Ballou, 2003; Bond, 2011; Bullough & Stokes, 1994; Chow, Chu, Tavares, & Lee, 2015;
Cochran-Smith et al., 2013; DeLuca, 2012; Ginns et al., 2001; Hopkins et al., 1997; McCormack et al., 2006; Pietsch & Williamson, 2009; Rhodes, Nevill, et al., 2004; Sutherland et al., 2006; J. White & Moss, 2003)
66 The school-based interactions between teachers, students and staff form the basis of teacher’s social networks. Positive relationships in the school setting enhance
teacher resilience as they promote a sense of belonging, acceptance and wellbeing, nurture professional growth and encourage collective ownership and accountability (B. Johnson, Down, Le Cornu, Peters, Sullivan, Pearce, et al., 2010). Many studies scrutinize the importance of teacher-student relationships from the perspective of children, however little is known of how these relationships impact the professional and personal lives of teachers.
In addition to teacher-student relationships is the rapport between teachers and parents and teachers and colleagues. These relationships and how teachers process the experiences and emotions associated with these can impact significantly
teachers’ wellbeing (B. Johnson, Down, Le Cornu, Peters, Sullivan, Pearce, et al., 2010; Spilt et al., 2011). School-based cultures that promote friendly staff relationships where individuals’ efforts are recognised, good working relationships with
administration and leadership staff are enhanced and in which teachers feel valued are important (Rhodes, Neville, et al., 2004). Equally, school cultures that promote family participation is a child’s education produces significantly improved outcomes. Positive family involvement can lead to increased attendance, enhanced behaviour, and higher student achievement (Stoddard et al., 2011).
The transition from pre-service teacher to a full member of the professional teaching community is complex (Sutherland et al., 2006). This transition involves the
acquisition of required competencies and a redefining of the image of themselves as members of the teaching community of practice (Sutherland et al., 2006), an
important part of which is to continue to develop and grow in the profession.
The provision of ongoing and meaningful opportunities for professional
development or professional learning is essential for the advancement of teachers’ pedagogical expertise during a lifelong process (Chow et al., 2015). Early, targeted
67 professional development that meets the needs of graduate teachers has the
potential to increase self-confidence, motivation and commitment to teaching (Rhodes, Neville, et al., 2004).
Professional development and formal mentoring programs are not always offered in schools. J. White and Moss (2003) emphasise the importance of informal authentic professional conversations and their role in professional development, improved practices and student outcomes as beginning teachers benefit from the thinking and sharing with experienced colleagues. This productive collaboration can be
contextualised within the school and collegial sharing can be encouraged and supported by school leadership (Rhodes, Neville, et al., 2004).
Pietsch and Williamson (2009) documented that a lack of support, access to professional development opportunities and the inability to develop continuity in the growth of teaching skills for those who begin teaching without permanency, impacts beginning teachers’ levels of commitment to the profession after the first year of teaching. Beginning teachers that had secured full-time permanent teaching developed a strong sense of identity as their competency progressed and their confidence in their capacity to teach became apparent (Pietsch & Williamson, 2009).
Limited attention has been afforded to teacher leadership as an area of professional learning (Bond, 2011). Although professional development is rarely offered to casual or short-term staff in the school setting (Pietsch & Williamson, 2009), Bond (2011) sees it best placed within initial teacher education programs which, “under the guidance of knowledgeable teacher educators, are ideal places to introduce the concept [of leadership] and begin to develop the knowledge, skills, and dispositions [of future leaders]” (p. 281).
68
2.10
Summary
The pathway to teaching for career-change pre-service teachers is complex and unique to the individual. However, career-changers are united by their need for substantial change in the orientation of their lives. These pre-service teachers enter a dynamic contemporary professional context and contribute significantly to the current teaching workforce. Better understanding the demographics of those entering the profession allows for more targeted and effective recruitment,
preparation and retention processes. The identification of the intrinsic, altruistic and extrinsic rewards of teaching that appeal to those considering teaching as a career option can be emphasised and the personal and professional challenges navigated throughout the ITE process and beyond. Although literature exists that identifies some of the pragmatic elements of transitioning into the teaching profession, little exists that considers the role of pre-service teacher beliefs, perceptions and
motivations for teaching and how these factors impact emerging professional identity in pre-service teachers. Research that draws together an understanding of the pre-service and graduate teacher and understanding of motivations and influences in light of professional teaching contexts is critical in not only attracting quality teachers but retaining them in the profession.
This chapter has provided a review of the literature pertinent to pre-service and graduate teacher experience. It presents a context for the study and provides a conceptual framework for interpreting the research questions outlined in Chapter 1. The research approach and methodology, project design, instrument development and data collection and analysis methods extend from these literature fields and are outlined in the following chapter.
69
Methodology
3.1 Introduction
The review of the literature presented in Chapter 2 sheds light on the key areas of the teaching profession as they relate to the overarching aims and research questions of this study to explore the preconceptions, understandings and beliefs held by pre-service teachers regarding the teaching profession.
In this chapter, an overview of the research approach and design are presented with the research aims and questions clearly identified. A detailed description of each phase of the study is provided, as is the process of ethical approval and
considerations for the research. The process of instrument design, the selection of the sample and the project timeline are defined. This chapter also includes the methods by which reliability was upheld throughout data collection, organisation and analysis phases of the study (Burns, 2000; Creswell, 2008; Denscombe, 2009).