Nº CÓDIGO UD RESUMEN IMPORTE

Batswana, a word normally used to signify all the citizens of Botswana, originally referred to the country’s major ethnic groups which include, Bangwato, Bakwena, Bakgatla, Bangwaketse,

Batawana, Batlokwa, Barolong, and Balete. These ethnic groups came into present day Botswana from South Africa in the early 1800 in fear of the Zulu-led wars. According to Wagner (2006), at independence in 1966, the government of Botswana declared that its people will be

50

called “Batswana” regardless of their ethnicity in outlook of national unison. This resolution was largely influenced by the history and practices of the then apartheid regime in South Africa that had torn the ethnic groups in that country apart and followed a policy of segregation that divided people on the basis of race (Wagner, 2006). This resolution had profound impact on the school curriculum since curriculum developed appeared not to be multicultural in nature. In this case, there is room to argue that students as citizens do not have a choice and a voice in what they learn but rather act as sheepish followers of the curriculum of the day that does not take into account their unique social and cultural identities.

Adiyenka and Major (2006) posit that notwithstanding their varying levels of development, most educational systems in traditional Africa were undergirded by three interrelated elements. These elements include cultural preservation and conservation; adapting children to their physical, social and spiritual environment; and instilling a sense of interdependence between the continuity of inherited laws, customs, values and wellbeing of the children themselves and the community at large. In the case of Botswana, these elements, which cover the ideals of citizenship education, were inculcated through initiation schools at which children were prepared for adult roles in their respective communities. While devoid of formal education institutions, traditional African education fruitfully transmitted cultural values from one generation to the other. The kind of education offered focused on the production of well-rounded and responsible youth who are capable of playing an influential role in their society. Bassey (1999) agrees that traditional education in Africa was more of a cultural action aimed at the creation of attitudes and habits considered necessary for participation in societal activities. To carry on with the discussion, it is important to first relate the ethnical composition of the Botswana society and how it has been conceptualised over time.

Nyati-Ramahobo and Chebanne (2004) puts it clear that Botswana is a homogeneous society and assert that she is a multicultural society with more than twenty-six (26) languages spoken in the country. It is therefore evident that Botswana has several ethnic groups embracing of Setswana and non-Setswana speaking groups. The Setswana speaking groups are Bangwato, Bakwena,

Bakgatla, Batswapong, Babirwa, Bangwaketse, Batawana, Batlokwa, Bakgalagadi, Barolong, Bateti, Balete and Bangologa. The non-Setswana speaking camp of ethnic groups comprise the

51

Basarwa (Bushmen), Bakalanga and Bayei, Bambukushu, Basubiya. Formerly the constitution of

Botswana divided the populace according to ‘major ‘and ‘minor‘ ethnic groups. The major ethnic groups were made up of the eight (8) main Tswana speaking ethnic groups that were recognised by the colonial administration. These groups were Bangwato, Batlokwa, Bakwena, Bakgatla,

Batawana, Bangwaketse, Balete and Barolong.

The division of ethnic groups into major and minor was not based on numerical value but on language. That is, the major ethnic groups spoke Setswana and were as such considered and classified as major. The major ethnic groups were the only ethnic groups having representation in the House of Chiefs, a situation that has contributed to ethnic worry in the country. The rest of the other groups were regarded as minor. The treatment of some ethnic groups as major and others as minor in the Constitution of Botswana basically contradicts the essence of social equity and is equal to discrimination and prejudice, a situation that needs to be disliked and disallowed within a democratic nation such as Botswana (Nyathi-Ramahobo, 2000). This study contends that an aggressive educational campaign can be instituted to bring a paradigm shift in the state of affairs before further ethnic chaos can erupt. It is thus opportune to have subjects such as Social Studies among others with capability to bear the load of harmonising the situation by educating on good citizenry.

The recognition of some ethnic groups as major and the marginalization of the so-called minor ethnic groups is problematic in that it negatively impacts on their identity as Batswana. It makes other citizens in Botswana to be of a lesser citizenship. These minor ethnic groups were later pressured by the state of marginalization and non-recognition to form associations that are meant to deal with promoting and preserving their cultures and languages. Examples of such associations are the Society of the Promotion of Ikalanga Language (SPILL) for the Bakalanga and Kamanakao Association for the Wayeyi and First Peoples of the Kalahari for the Basarwa. All these associations fall under the umbrella of the Botswana Council of non-Governmental Organizations (BOCONGO). BOCONGO is the mother body of non-governmental organizations in Botswana. Its role is threefold, to assist its members in areas such as policy, research and advocacy; capacity building; and net-working and information dissemination (Nyathi- Ramahobo, 2000). The quest for national unity has resulted in the subsequent suppression of

52

other languages and cultures by deliberately adopting assimilation policies that characterise post- independent Botswana (Nyathi-Ramahobo & Chebanne, 2004; Maruatona, 2005).

The intrinsic diversity in the ethnic groups, cultures and languages as in Botswana’s case, calls for attention and the need for a curriculum that takes into account issues of multicultural education. This condition unquestionably demands that teachers as educators of democratic citizenship education must be well cognizant of multiculturalism and hence be able to function in a culturally competent manner in their workplaces and communities as educators and promoters of democratic dispensation and national unification. Parker (2004) argues that a homogenous view in diversity has implications for school curriculum and classroom practice as it has potential to instill in children superiority and inferiority complex at an early age. It also has the potential to dismiss and omit some minority cultures and experiences which could be used to promote educational goals. In such a scenario there is high possibility of the prevalence of inequalities among children which may later in life manifest in ethnic prejudice, discrimination and favouritism.

The above discussed cultural diversity in Botswana needs attention. It is evident that the idea of a mono-cultural society adopted at independence in Botswana can no longer be sustained because as the nation grows, pertinent issues of diversity and equity become inevitable and can better be addressed through an educational campaign. This study can be viewed as pivotal in promoting democratic citizenship education at teacher training level with the hope that these ideals will later propagate to young citizens at primary school level and harmoniously unite Botswana society.

In view of the above captured socio-cultural setup of the citizens of Botswana, the notion of diversity in democratic citizenship education curriculum at teacher training level is an absolute necessity. Teacher training programmes are part of a number of areas that can contribute positively to changing the mind-set and socio-cultural practices of a society. Simply put, an education curriculum and school environment that orient young people towards the social, economic, cultural and political values of their unique societies will promote Botswana’s national principles of democracy, unity, development, self-reliance and botho (a well-rounded person) in an endeavour to build a democratic, accountable, just and caring nation.

53

The UNESCO Report (2010) indicates that teacher education is a crucial step in improving the education system. This study purports to examine whether the education and training of Social Studies teachers involves both methodological and organisational changes to create a child- centred-teaching and learning-friendly environments which are capable of encouraging participation in communal and national undertakings. The study will also investigate whether Social Studies teacher training curriculum in Botswana is integrated and harmonised with the nine-year basic education curriculum to enable teacher trainees to competently fit into their work upon completion of their training. The study is based on the assumption that pre-service training provides the preparation necessary for teachers to change traditional attitudes towards student diversity and increase their understanding of inclusive practices. For this reason, this study intends to explore the extent to which primary teacher training colleges of education adequately equip teacher-trainees with diverse teaching strategies to enable them to teach citizenship topics at primary school level. Next is a discussion on Botswana’s experience with citizenship education.