"Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain the initiation, direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of behaviour; especially goal-directed behaviour" (Brophy, 2004, p. 3). Motivation has similarly been described as a force that energises, sustains, and directs behaviour toward a goal (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007). There are strong links between motivation and achievement; a student' s motivation to learn at school is at the
very heart of successful academic and school success (Brophy, 2004; E ggen & Kauchak, 2007; Weinstein, 1998). A number of researchers (Martin, 2003 ; Stipek, 2002) have indicated the behaviours or characteristics of motivated students. They are:
• More positive about and enjoy school more.
• More effective and persistent on difficult learning tasks.
• Cause less classroom behaviour problems.
• Learn more curriculum knowledge and gain better marks on assessment tasks. • Demonstrate deeper thinking and processing skills.
Teachers appreciate and enjoy motivated students.
Theories of motivation have developed from a belief that a student's motivation depends on an external response or internal felt need; to motivation being an intrinsically, self-determined action. There are three main theories of motivation; they are behavioural, humanistic and cognitive. These three theories can all be foun d in use in the classroom but researchers would argue that cognitive theory due to the strong correlations of its principles with intrinsic motivation is the ideal. Table 4.2 outli nes and gives the main focus of the three main motivation theories that are used in most classrooms in New Zealand schools.
Table 4.2 Theories of Motivation
BEHAVIOURAL HUMANISTIC COGNITIVE
A focus on changes in behaviour A focus on people's attempts to A focus on learner's beliefs, that result from experiences with fulfil their potential. Emphasises expectations and needs for order,
the environment. the total person and drive for predictability and understanding.
The use of reinforcement as an self-actualisation. To motivate Motivated by the need to explanation for motivation. need to address lower needs understand and make sense of Reinforcers such as praise, along with upper needs and the world is at the heart of
rewards, grades and test scores acknowledge the genuine cognitive motivation. seen as good motivators. accomplishments and increased
of students.
Adapted from Brophy (2004) and Eggen and Kauchal ( 2 007)
Motivation can be divided into two broad categories; extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is determined by felt pressures or needs towards a predetermined end. Intrinsic motivation is self-determination of goals and self-regulation of actions; a
self-determined involvement and action for its own self (Brophy, 2004; Pintrinch & Schunk, 2002). The ideal is for students to be intrinsic or self motivated; doing something without external pressure being applied by a teacher or some other agent. Intrinsic motivation is also preferable because of its more direct focus on learning and understanding. Research has determined that students can be more intrinsically motivated by learning tasks or activities that involve challenges that are moderately difficult, where learners feel they have influence and control over their learning, and the learning tasks evoke interest and curiosity, as well as, involving creativity and fantasy that allow learners to use their imagination. (Brophy, 2004; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Stipek, 2002). Brophy (2004) argued that although intrinsic motivation is the ideal it is unattainable in the every-day school classroom.
If intrinsic motivation is ideal but unattainable as an al l-day, everyday motivational state for teachers to seek to develop in their students, what might be a more feasible goal? I believe that it is realistic for you to seek to develop and sustain for your students motivation to learn from academic activities: their tendencies to find academic activities
meaningful and worthwhile and try to get the intended benefits from them. (Brophy, 2004, p. 1 5)
Motivation to learn requires students to find learning tasks to be meaningful and worthwhile and understand the learning benefits from doing so.
Table 4.3 Theories of Cognitive Motivation
Theory Definition Basic Premise
Expectancy x Value Suggests that people are motivated to People are motivated to work on a
engage i n an activity to the extent that task if they expect to succeed and
they expect to succeed times the value value success
on the task
Self-Efficacy A belief about one's own ability to People's beliefs about their
organise and complete a course of capabilities influence their
action to a task motivation.
Goal An outcome an individual hopes to Setting appropriate goals increases
achieve. motivation
A focuses on the
mastery, improvement, and i ncreased
understanding.
A focuses on
competence or ability and how it
to others
Attribution Attempts to systematically describe People are intrinsically motivated learners' explanations for their To understand their successes and
successes and failures and how these failures influence motivation and behaviour
Self-determination The process of deciding how to act on People have instinctive needs for
one's environment competence,
Control, and related needs
As Brophy (2004) explained, it is a cognitive response involving attempts to make sense of the information and relate this to prior knowledge as well as to mastering the skills that the learning task develops. "Stimulating students' motivation to learn includes encouraging them to use thoughtful information-processing and skill-building strategies when they are learning. This is quite different from merely offering them incentives for good performance later" (Brophy, 2004, p. 1 5 )
This motivation to learn i s closely related to the cognitive theory of motivation and involves five sub-theories of Expectancy x Value Theory, Self- Efficacy Theory, Goal Theory, Attribution Theory and Self-determination Theory. Each of these theories is explained in Table 4.3 along with the basic premise for each.
Both Brophy (2004) and Martin (2003) believed that strategies can be taught that will improve the motivation of the student and enhance their academic success. The next section discusses the Student Motivation Scale developed by Martin (2003) that identifies ten factors which either enhance or inhibit motivation. The factors are closely linked to the theories of cognitive motivation as explained in Table 4.2. The Student
Motivation Scale was the quantitative data collection tool used in this study.