In qualitative research, it is important to have “not just sufficient qualitative but sufficient quality data with which to work” (Saldaña, 2009, p. 15; original emphasis). Hence, the choice of appropriate research participants is crucial. It has to be noted that the people from whom data is collected in this research are referred to as research ‘participants’ instead of research ‘subjects’ since the former acknowledges people as collaborators in research while the latter refers to people as controllable objects. The term ‘participants’ therefore is more appropriate for positivist studies (VanderStoep, 2009).
Qualitative, in-depth studies usually deal with small rather than large samples of people which tend to be purposive rather than random (Patton, 2002). The sample size in qualitative studies is not strictly predetermined and can evolve once the data collection has been started (Miles & Huberman, 1994). In fact, “initial choices of informants lead you to similar and different ones; observing one class of events invites comparison with another; and understanding one key relationship in the setting reveals facets to be studied in others”. This type of approach is called “conceptually-driven sequential sampling” (ibid., p. 27). Usually, the typical sample size in qualitative research varies between 20 and 35 participants. However, the sufficiency of sample size can be determined by “the criterion of redundancy” which is met when new respondents do not “significantly add new information and understanding” (VanderStoep, 2009, p. 188).
Existing studies demonstrate that the actual sample sizes vary considerably from study to study. For example, Dickinson et al. (2011) used eight in-depth interviews with eleven participants in order to underpin the concept of slow travel while to develop a conceptual framework for slow travel, Lumsdon and McGrath (2011) conducted twenty five face-to-face in-depth open-ended interviews with people who are engaged in slow travel as academics, practitioners and writers. However, since more than half of the respondents were from the UK and the rest from continental Europe as well as North America, the authors admit that “there is a western bias” (ibid., p. 270).
Further, in order to study the influence of the slow movement on tourism development, Nilsson et al. (2011) conducted nine formal semi-structured interviews with ten local officials who were involved in both the Slow Food and Cittáslow projects. In addition, systematic observations prior to and after the interviews were conducted. Lamb (2013) studied slow living among ten families from Fremantle, Australia, using focus groups and interviews. In order to examine the extent to which a slow city image motivates domestic tourists to visit such a destination and influences visitor behaviour, Cosar and Kozak (2014) used interviews with 24 local visitors to Seferihisar, Turkey, that lasted from 15 to 60 minutes. Ho et al. (2015) conducted in-depth interviews with 60 leisure/recreational cyclists in order to explore the psychological values that motivated them to engage in this slow tourism related activity. Finally, over the course of five years, Tiyce and Wilson (2012) conducted 62 in-depth interviews and more than 200 semi-
structured conversations with individual, partnered and group travellers while researching the experiences of long-term travellers in Australia.
Participant recruitment started in June 2014 after ethical approval had been obtained in May 2014. All participants who have taken part in this research are grouped into four clusters (see Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1 Research participants (Source: author)
There are several qualitative sampling methods – convenience, criterion, homogeneous, opportunistic, maximum variation, purposeful and stratified purposeful (Veal, 2006). In addition, sampling can be done on the basis of critical case, typical case, extreme or deviant case, politically important case, confirming and disconfirming case, snowball or chain, intensity and theory (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Sampling can also be done combining or mixing different approaches.
Tourism destination marketing organization (18) Non-governmental organization (2) Private sector / slow tourism related products (4)
Local and foreign tourists (12) Slow
In the current study, multiple sampling frames have been employed (see Table 3.4). The main consideration for employing different sampling strategies was to ensure that information-rich cases are selected (Patton, 2002), i.e. that research participants can provide valuable and in-depth information for this study.
Table 3.4 Sampling methods used in the research (Source: author)
Sampling method
Description Research participants recruited DMO Tourists Private
sector
NGO
Theoretical sampling
based on the theoretical needs of the study
X X X X
Criterion sampling
individuals are selected for interview on the basis of meeting a criterion X X Snowball sampling research participants recommend other research participants X X Opportunistic sampling taking advantage of
opportunities as they arise
X X X
Tourism destination marketing organization – supply side. As the initial plan envisaged, the representatives of the Latvian Tourism Development Agency were contacted and as a result, two people were interviewed (theoretical sampling). At the time of the research, both of them held senior positions in the LTDA and both had worked there when the new Latvian tourism brand “Latvia. Best enjoyed slowly” was introduced. Due to the small number of people that were suitable and available for interviews in the LTDA, it was decided to include the managers of Tourism Information Centres (TIC) in the study since they (1) develop and implement the tourism policy at regional level, (2) are informed about the tourism policy at national level and (3) work closely with tourism providers,
tourists, and tourism planners. Consequently, TIC managers are able to evaluate the actual situation in terms of tourism demand and supply in relation to slow tourism as well as give valuable insights into the actual implementation of Latvian tourism marketing strategy. On this occasion, the sampling approach – theoretical sampling – was guided by research and based on constructs examined (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). In addition to theoretical sampling, criterion sampling has been used to select TIC managers so that a proportional number of representatives from all four planning regions (apart from Riga) would be included. This approach helps to capture regional differences in terms of slow tourism interpretations, demand and supply. Altogether fourteen TIC representatives have been interviewed: five from the Vidzeme region, two from the Zemgale region, four from the Kurzeme region, and three from the Latgale region. One respondent was a member of the regional tourism association. Finally, the member from the Riga Tourism Development Bureau representing the “Live Riga” brand was also included in the study. The “Live Riga” brand is a tourism brand for Riga, the capital of Latvia. Since both brands – “Live Riga” and “Latvia. Best enjoyed slowly” – emphasize different values and appeal to different market segments, it was important to identify how these both brands coexist. In all cases, participants were contacted either by a personalized email which explained the essence of the research or by telephone. Altogether, eighteen people were interviewed and this group of participants is labelled as ‘tourism destination marketing organization’.
Local & foreign tourists– demand side. In the case of local tourists, several types of sampling were used – theoretical sampling, snowball or chain sampling, opportunistic and criterion sampling. Some participants were identified prior to the data collection process (theoretical and criterion sampling). Others were suggested by other participants (snowball sampling). The existing studies on slow travellers have employed snowball sampling (Dickinson et al., 2011; Dickinson et al., 2010) which is a method used when no sampling frame exists from which a random sample can be drawn (Jordan & Gibson, 2004). Although local participants did not identify or call themselves slow tourists, they had all engaged in slow tourism at some point in their lives. As with the DMO representatives, participants were contacted by a personalized email explaining the research.
In the case of foreign tourists, recruitment of participants from this group was the most challenging. As stated earlier, there is a paucity of studies on slow travellers and suggestions as to their identification and recruiting strategies are limited. The research of Dickinson et al. (2011), for instance, deals with self-identified slow travellers who were recruited through local advertising and a snowball approach. In order to identify slow travel practitioners, writers and academics, Lumsdon and McGrath (2011, p. 270) established key search criterion so that their participants could be definitely associated with slow travel, namely: “they were expected to have written at least one paper, book or item about slow travel in the form of a website, paper, report or presentation.”
The potential respondents for this particular study were approached in several ways. Messages inviting slow tourists who have engaged in slow tourism in Latvia to participate in the research were posted in online forums and discussion boards of slow travel online groups – LinkedIn, CouchSurfing, Slow Europe Travel Forums and Facebook. However, this strategy did not yield any results. One of the possible explanations is that Latvia is not a popular destination for tourists who identify themselves as slow tourists. If looking at slow travel forums, then out of nearly 600 travel reports on the Slow Travel website there is just one entry about Latvia (entry #1962 mentions Latvia as part of a European trip) (Slow Travel, 2014). There are no reports mentioning Latvia on Slow Europe Travel Forums (Slow Travel Europe, 2014). The most popular destinations for slow tourism in Europe discussed in both websites are France and Italy. Moreover, it appeared that people who engage in slow tourism do not consider themselves as slow tourists, i.e. they do not describe themselves as slow tourists. As one of the participants has emphasized, these people usually do not call themselves slow tourists simply because they have not heard about the term and do not label themselves at all. However, once they understand what the term encompasses, they recognize that their travel style corresponds to that of slow tourists.
Therefore, after several months of no results the idea of recruiting self-identified slow tourists who have engaged in slow tourism in Latvia was rejected, and three other strategies were tested instead in order to see whether they could yield any results. Firstly, several hotels were approached for recruiting tourists who would fit the slow travel philosophy. Only one hotel agreed to help with participant recruiting. A letter was
prepared (Appendix 4) explaining the research and slow travel philosophy for hotel receptionists to give to guests who stayed at least three nights. Besides the length of stay, other criteria mentioned in the letter were a willingness to explore the destination more thoroughly, to experience local culture and to get to know local people and their traditions. This approach represents criterion-based sampling when all cases have to meet certain criteria (Patton, 2002). Secondly, the researcher decided to participate in two CouchSurfing meetings that took place in Riga. Actual participation in meetings and gatherings of particular community members is often used to get access to potential research participants as well as to get better insights into community practice (O'Regan, 2012). After talking with various event attendees, several people were approached and asked whether they would like to participate in the research and to be interviewed. Thirdly, the researcher recruited participants in Riga central bus station. This strategy was chosen because several other participants had indicated that slow tourists 1) often visit all three Baltic countries and their capitals and 2) choose public transport to get from one country to another (e.g. from Riga to Vilnius, Lithuania and Tallinn, Estonia). While there are no train connections between Riga and Vilnius and Riga and Tallinn, the bus connections between these cities are good, with more than 10 departures from Riga to the other two capitals daily. People were approached while they were waiting for their bus and briefed about the research. If their travel patterns did correspond with the principles of slow travel (a longer stay at their destination, an interest in local culture, use of public transport) and they agreed to participate, the researcher’s contact details were given. In most cases, people did not have enough time for an in-depth interview but they agreed to get in touch once they returned home. The last two approaches can be categorized as opportunistic sampling – “following new leads; taking advantage of the unexpected” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 28). All participants had engaged in slow tourism to some extent during their trip to Latvia. Altogether, data from twelve respondents was collected and this group of participants is labelled as ‘local & foreign tourists’.
Non-governmental organization – supply and demand side. During the data collection process, other informants that could provide important insights into the research topic were identified. There are no Cittáslow member cities in Latvia. However,
the Slow Food Riga association was established in 1996 and has been a member of the Slow Food global network since 2005. Therefore, one informant was a member of Slow Food Riga (theoretical sampling); the other was a member of the Latvian Ecotourism Society (opportunistic sampling). The participants were contacted by personalized emails explaining the purpose of the research.
Private sector – supply side. While searching for research participants, several companies were identified that offer slow tourism-related products (theoretical sampling). Many research participants had provided examples of products that were appropriate for slow tourism (opportunistic and snowball sampling). Therefore, a decision was made to include some examples from the private sector.