2.1.5. Características Personales de los Emprendedores
2.1.5.1. Modelo de la motivación de McClelland
2.1.5.1.1. Necesidad de logro
In plant pathology it is assumed that immunity is the rule and exception susceptibility. Otherwise, any pathogen would be able to infect any plant and short term in evolutionary terms; the vegeta- bles would disappear from the earth (Romeiro
1985 ). This does not happen because the plant defense mechanisms against pathogens exist in multiplicity and are effi cient (Romeiro 1995 ). The “induction of resistance” may be used to denote local protection in tissues receiving treat- ment with inducing agent or systemic manifesting the distance from where the inductor was applied (Moraes 1992 ). The protection induced is depen- dent on the time interval between the treatment with inducer and application of the pathogen (Pascholati and Leite 1995). This dependence indicates that specifi c changes in plant metabo- lism involving synthesis and/or accumulation of substances occurred, which is an important fact in induced resistance phenomenon (Taiz and Zeiger 2009 ).
Two acronyms – ISR (induced systemic resis- tance) and SAR (systemic acquired resistance) – are recognized almost as synonyms to designate the phenomenon through which plants, after exposure to an inducing agent, have enabled their defense mechanisms. Activated not only in the induction site but also in other distant sites (Sticher et al. 1997 ), the inducing agent may be a chemical activator such as benzothiadiazole derivatives and other compound (Benhamou and Belanger 1998) extracts of microbial cells
14
(Romeiro and Kimura 1997 ) or live microorgan- isms (Liu et al. 1995 ).
The authors agree that SAR and ISR are dis- tinct phenomena, by the way in which they are induced and triggered. They are also governed by different biochemical mechanisms, but similarity in phenotypic end result is expressed as systemi- cally induced resistance (Romeiro 1999 ).
In SAR induction occurs as hypersensitive response (HR), which is characterized by the pro- grammed death of cells around the infection, acts against biotrophic pathogens and wherefore restricts access to water and nutrients. The HR is activated by salicylic acid signal (AS) (Glazebrook 2005 ). If a hypersensitivity response is successful, a small region of dead tissue remains at the site of pathogen attack, but the rest of the plant is not affected (Taiz and Zeiger 2009 ). The SAR involves the accumulation of PRP (pathogenesis-related proteins); a number of these proteins have antimicrobial activity, and it is believed to contribute to the plant reaching the state of SAR (Ward et al. 1991 ).
In the case of ISR, no accumulation of PRPs happens; the plant that has to bear induction of resistance does not display changes; the inducing agent is usually a nonpathogen and its induction is not dependent of salicylate; there appears to be another signaling pathway and further linked to jasmonates and ethylene (Pieterse et al. 2005 ).
A clear example of these different routes was verifi ed by Ton et al. ( 2002 ) using Arabidopsis and different pathogens, which seems to show that SAR seems to be based on an increase in the dependent defenses, whereas ISR seems to be based on an increase in defenses dependent on jasmonic acid (AJ) and ethylene (ET). In addi- tion, there may be simultaneous activation of ISR and SAR resulting in a higher level of protection induced, determined by van Wees et al. ( 2000 ) in Arabidopsis thaliana . This indicates that the ISR route dependent on AJ and ET and SAR depen- dent on AS act independently and in additive pro- tection against that particular pathogen. So the combination of these two types of induced resis- tance could protect the plant against a comple- mentary spectrum of pathogens and may even result in an induced protection against pathogens’
additive level; the respective host resistance may occur through the dependent route AJ/ET and AS. These data offer great potential for integrat- ing both forms of resistance-induced protection in future agronomic practices (Pieterse et al.
2005 ).
Bacteria can perform the IRS process, and several studies have shown that there is a range of bacteria with the ability for different types of phytopathogens. In Arabidopsis seedlings exposed to bacterial volatile blends from Bacillus subtilis and B. amyloliquefaciens , disease sever- ity of Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora was reduced compared with seedlings not exposed to bacterial volatiles before pathogen inoculation. This bacterial volatile was suffi cient to activate ISR in Arabidopsis seedlings (Ryu et al. 2004 ). Exogenous application of the B. subtilis -derived elicitor, acetoin (3-hydroxy-2-butanone), was found to trigger ISR and protects plants of Arabidopsis against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Rudrappa et al. 2010 ).
1.7
Conclusions
In this chapter we presented techniques to assist in the characterization of interesting bacterial strains for use on sustainable agriculture, since it is primal selecting the right bacteria, with charac- teristics of interest according to the target, look- ing to the use of bioproducts, biofertilizers, or biopesticides. We discussed the topics of strain identifi cation, biological nitrogen fi xation, phos- phate solubilization, phytase production, sidero- phores, phytostimulation, and biocontrol characteristics. But before, the concepts, defi ni- tions, and regulation of the use of these environment- friendly sources were discussed.
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