El nivel de convivencia escolar que existe en los estudiantes de la IES José Antonio

This family of tropical and subtropical trees has about 30 genera and 2 0 0 species (Schultes and Raffauf, 1990). Antimalarial activity has been reported for quassinoids (Trager and Polonsky, 1981; Guru et al., 1983; O’Neill et al., 1987; Chan et al., 1986; Bray et al., 1987; O’Neill et al., 1988) and for indole alkaloids (Kardono et al., 1991 ; Pavanand et al., 1988) isolated from Simaroubaceous species, but it is the former group of compounds which is the more potent.

The in vitro testing of 40 individual quassinoids against Plasmodium falciparum (K1 ), a chloroquine-resistant strain, has been reported (O’Neill et al., 1986). Also, quassinoids have been shown to have in vitro activity against

Entamoeba histolytica (Gillin et al., 1982; Wright et al., 1988) and Leishmania donovani (Robert-Gero et al., 1985).

There are some 60 species of Picramnia in Central and South America and the West Indies (Schultes and Raffauf, 1990), of which six occur in Panama (Porter, 1973). Quassinoids have not been found, so far, in species of

Picramnia. Table 2.4 (p.6 8 ) shows the chemical compounds isolated from this genus.

Biological activity for extracts of Picrmania species: The chloroformic extract of the branches of P. antidesma was active against Plasmodium gallinaceum in vivo, but the aqueous extract was inactive (Spencer et al., 1947), and the methanolic extract of the leaves were inactive in plant germination inhibition (Dominguez and Alcorn, 1985). The chloroformic and

aqueous extracts of P. carpinterae (P. teapensis), P. locupes, P. longissima, P. pentandra, P. sellowii and P. xalapensis were inactive against P. gallinaceum, in vivo (Spencer et a!., 1947). An aqueous extract of the leaves of P.

macrostachys was active against Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus sp.

(Arana and Juica, 1986). The ethanolic extract of the leaves of P. pentandra

showed spasmogenic activity in isolated ileum of guinea pig and vasodilator activity in isolated hind quarter of rat (Feng et al., 1962).

Plant species Compounds Isolated References

P. antidesma Steroids: p-sitosterol Dominguez and Alcorn, 1985. P. macrostachys Quinones: chrysophanic acid,

physcion

Arana and JuIca, 1986

P. parvifolia Quinones: aloe-emodin, chrysophanic acid, emodin, physcion, rhein

Popinigis et al, 1980

P. pentandra Triterpenes: 3-epi-betulinic acid Herz et al., 1972 P. sellowii Quinones: chrysophanic acid,

emodin, physcion.

Triterpene: betulinic acid, 13-epi- betulinic acid

Leon, 1975

Table 2.4 Compounds Isolated from Species of Picramnia.

Picramnia antidesma subsp. fessonia (DC) W. Thomas:

Synonymous; P. fessonia, P. antidesma var. pubescens, P. andicoia, P. bonplandiana, P. tetramera, P. quaternaria, P. seemannaina, P. brachybotryosa, P. pistaciaefolia, P. locuples, P. velutina, P. aiienii.

This species is the most common and variable taxon of Picramnia in Mexico and Central America. This variability, particularly in flower merosity, leaflet number and shape, and features of the indûment, is responsible for the long list of synonymous (Thomas, 1988). The very bitter, liquorice-flavoured bark and leaves have been much used in Central America and the West Indies as remedies for malaria and stomach and intestinal ailments (Standley and Steyermark, 1958). The bark was formerly exported to Europe for use in treating erysipelas and venereal diseases (Morton, 1981).

Botanical description:

"Shrubs or small trees, 1-7 m high; branch lets yellowish appressed- tomentulose, becoming glabrate. Leaves alternate, pinnate, 18-24,5 cm long; petiole and the rachis yellowish appressed-tomentulose, becoming almost glabrate; leaflets 1 2 -2 0 , mainly and even number, alternate to lowermost subopposite, ovate to elliptic, narrowly acuminate apically, rounded and markedly inequilateral basally, the margins entire, revolute, chartaceous, yellowish appressed-tomentulose above and beneath on the main vein and marginally, the blade sparingly pubescent, 22-75 mm long and 8-23 mm wide, the terminal leaflets largest, the lowermost smallest and reflexed, the petiolules yellowish appressed-tomentulose, 2 - 3 mm long. Staminate racemes subterminal, becoming axillary, aggregated to solitary, simple or rarely once-branched, densely-flowered, yellowish appressed-tomentulose, to 38 cm long. Staminate flowers, 3 - merous, 1-several aggregated in clusters, white or greenish, the spreading, yellowish appressed-tomentulose, to 3 mm long, sepals 3, ovate, apiculate, appressed-pubescent, ca. 15 mm long and 1 mm wide, petals 3, narrowly elliptic, apiculate, glabrous to rarely sparingly

pubescent, longer than the sepals, ca. 1.5 mm long; stamens 3, exserted, the filaments filiform, glabrous, ca. 2.5 mm long, ovary absent.

Carpellated racemes solitary or in pairs, yellowish appressed- tomentulose, to 28 cm long. Carpellate flowers 3-merous, the pedicels appressed-tomentulose, articulated basally, 1-1.5 cm long in fruit; sepals 3, broadly triangular, appressed-pubescent, persistent and spreading in fruit, ca. 2 mm long and 1 mm wide; style bilobed, the lobes recurved and persisting in fruit. Berries red or orange, ellipsoid to obovoid, appressed-pubescent to glabrate, to 1.5 cm long; seeds 1". (Porter, 1973).

Picramnia teapensis Tul

Synonymous: P. carpinterae, P. antidesma var. carpinterae.

This species is found in cool moist forest from Mexico to Venezuela and it is most common in Costa Rica and Panama (Thomas, 1988). In Costa Rica, a decoction of the bitter bark of the trunk and roots is taken as a tonic to stimulate the appetite and digestion, and as a febrifuge (Nunez-Melendez, 1975).

Botanical description:

"Sma// trees, 5-12 m high, the crown flat; branch lets yellowish-villous.

Leaves alternate, pinnate, to 20 cm long; petiole and the rachis yellowish-villous; leaflets 9-11, alternate to subopposite, obtuse or acute and acuminate apically, more or less inequilateral, the uppermost and middle leaflets elliptic to ovate and cuneate basally, the lowermost ovate and cordate basally, paler beneath, the margins repand, revolute, subcoriaceous, villous marginally and beneath, especially on the veins, to 11 cm long and 5.5 cm wide, the lowermost pair much smaller than the others, the petiolules villous, 1 - 2 mm long. Staminate racemes

subterminal, becoming axillary, solitary, simple, yellowish-villous, 1 2 - 2 2

cm long. Staminate flowers 3-merous, numerous, 1-several aggregated in clusters, the pedicels glabrous, 1-3 mm long, sepals 3, obovate, sparingly pubescent, 1.5 mm long and 1 mm wide, petals 3, narrowly obovate, ca. 1 mm long; disc 3-4 lobed; stamens 3(-4), exserted, the filaments subulate, glabrous, ca. 2.5 mm long, ovary rudimentary, conical, villous apically, the style and stigma absent. Carpellate racemes

solitary, yellowish-villous, 23-27 cm long in flower, to 30 cm long in fruit.

Carpellate flowers 3-merous, white, the pedicels villous to glabrate, 2-4 mm long in flower, 4-12 mm long in fruit, articulated basally; sepals 3, broadly triangular, densely villous, persistent and spreading in fruit, ca. 1.5 mm long and 1.5 mm wide; petals 3, narrowly obovate, apiculate, spreading, ca. 2 mm long; staminodes 3, opposite the petals; disc 3- lobed, glabrous; ovary ovoid, densely pubescent, 1 - 2 mm high, 2 - loculed, the ovules 2 per locule, the style bilobed, the lobes recurved and persisting in fruit. Berries red, ellipsoid, sparingly pubescent; seeds 1-2". (Porter, 1973).