Nivel de desarrollo lingüístico después del experimento

Historical Background to the Settlement o f the Luo and the Gusii in Nyanza

The Luo o f Homa Bay District and the Gusii o f Kisii District are the inhabitants o f the two rural districts covered by this study. The Luo are Nilotic while the Gusii are Bantu tribal groups. Although they are o f different tribal groups, their routes into the present areas o f occupation is the same. In his description o f the emergence o f the Luo and Gusii social and political systems, Ochieng, et al, (1974) reckons .that “a peoples way o f life is usually very greatly influenced by the environment”. Until the 15th century the present day Siaya, Busia and Kisumu Districts (map 1) was a vast open grassland plains which was occupied by the Bantu group o f people, among whom were the Gusii. The Gusii, described at that time as “passionate cattle people” preferred to live in the low-lying grassland plains around the lake which provided them with ample pastures and water fpr their herds. However the arrival and invasion o f the area by the Luo between 1450-1650 AD saw the Bantu tribes migrate in different directions. The Logoli (Maragoli) group moved northward, the Abakuria to the south and Gusii eastward in the direction o f the present day Gusii Highlands. The eastward movement o f the Gusii became restricted by the Kipsigis who were already occupying the northern end o f the Highlands and the Maasai who were on the eastern side o f the Highlands. The Gusii had no choice but to adjust to the cold and wet climate in the highlands, but this time subjected to frequent raids from all sides by the Luo from the west, the Kipsigis from the north and the Maasai from the east. The Gusii therefore lost their cattle to the frequent raiders and also to the highland environment which had no open woodland for grazing cattle. Pastoralism began to decline very rapidly among the Gusii, being replaced more and more by agricultural cultivation which was greatly encouraged by the rich soil and ample and reliable rainfall.

Social and Political Systems o f the Gusii

As pastoralist occupying open land, the Gusii tended to migrate as individual (nuclear) family units comprising a man his wife or wives and their children, including married sons and their families, the day to day leadership and authority being vested in the hands of the family heads. In the 18th century, the individual family units began to form small but distinct clans and evolution o f small groups (clans) which migrated together under organised leaders. As they acquired and settled in the virgin highland forests, they had to sub-divide the land into clans, sub-clans and villages into individual families. In the Highlands, the Gusii had to occupy ridges in clan units with clear leaderships called Abagambi (chiefs) who were hereditary. The Abagambi were looked upon to lead the clans in communal sacrifices and social activities, being first to cultivate, sow seeds, taste new crops and first to harvest. They served as religious and political head o f the clan.

Settled in the Highlands with favourable soil and climate the Gusii turned into cultivation with heavy yields o f sorghum, millet, fmgermillet, vegetables and later bananas. But without cattle, the Gusii depended on their meat supplies from hunting, fowl-keeping and occasional raids on their neighbours’ livestock.

The fore description shows major transformation o f the Gusii people, with nuclear fam ily type o f system, from the low-lying grassland plains “passionate cattle people” to a Highland lucrative cash crop cultivators. This historical background explains the present day well defined land demarcation in the Kisii District.

Social and Political Systems o f the Luo

The Luo, like the Gusii, were cattle people but also relied on fish as the most important source o f food. Cattle for the Luo was for producing milk and blood. Cattle meat was only eaten on religious and ceremonial occasions. The skin o f the animal provided bedding and kuot (shields) and dung for fuel as well as for plastering walls and floors. Ownership o f cattle among the Luo was a “considerable prestige” but not o f financial

economic value although it was used for settlement o f claims and for paying dowry. With time pastoralism gave way to cultivation.

From their historical background, the Luo lived communally with many families staying together on a ridge. In this community a dominant family provided Ruoth (King). As the population on a ridge grew big, groups o f related kinsmen would migrate and look for a virgin ridge to occupy as an expansion o f the previous Piny Ruoth (Kingdom) if the migration was peaceful but a new community with new Ruoth was established if there was rebellion with the former Piny Ruoth. Piny Ruoth became the social and political organizational unit with prescribed code o f behaviour and leadership structure.

Land ownership among the Luo was communal, and any member o f the clan had a right to cultivate any part o f the sphere. The size o f m an’s garden depended very much on his standing. But once harvesting is done, the individual had no special claim to their gardens and returned them to the clan. Until the 19th century and as populations grew and became more settled land claims became recognized. However land always belonged to the entire community and it could not be sold to a person from a different clan, but could be ceded to a friend or relative from a different clan. However, if the clan wanted to use it for communal benefit, the trustee had no alternative but to look for fresh plots. Within the family, a m an’s plots were divided among his wives who on death passed them on to their male children. This historical perspective explains why to date land in most o f the Luo land remain unconsolidated.

The fore description gives the historical background o f the Luo people, with a communal fa m ily type o f system, remaining in the low-lying grassland plains along the shores o f the

lake transforming from pastoralism to cultivation in a less fertile and undependable rainfall Lowlands.

Social and Economie Evolution o f the Luo and the Gusii

The economic inter-dependence between the Luo o f Homa Bay and the Gusii o f Kisii date back to pre-colonial time in the 17th and 18th centuries. It was influenced by the environment. The Luo lived in the relatively low drier areas which favoured extensive pastoralism, while the Gusii lived in the wet and fertile Highlands which favoured extensive cultivation. Although the Luo were also cultivators, often they were faced with droughts and famine. During these periods o f hardship, the Luo depended on the Gusii for grains, making the Gusii proudly referring to themselves as the “granary” o f the Luo.

In addition to the farm produce, the Gusii also produced and exported to the Luo ironware like axes, spears, razors and spear and arrow heads; soapstone dust for decorations o f the Luo heroes, and carvings into knives, clay pipes, bowls, animals, birds and human beings; valued leopard skins for dressing o f the Luo elders on special occasions; and baboon skins used by the Luo magicians and ‘traditional’ doctors. All these items were exchanged expensively for cattle, sheep and goats from the Luo. The Luo in return supplied the Gusii with hides for bedding and dressing; pots for cooking and storage; and snake and plant poisons for making spears and arrow heads which were later exported to the Luo. As the Luo hung onto pastoralism, the Gusii diversified in their economic, agricultural and industrial activities, thus exporting their products to Luoland and other parts o f East Africa. This export market continued until the arrival o f the Arab and Swahili traders who bought the Gusii products in large quantities. (This Section 2.3 is based on the writings o f Ochieng, W.R.,1974)