Rebecca Oxford developed the SILL, a Likert-scaled, self-report instrument that assesses the frequency with which the respondent uses a variety of different strategies to learn a language. Strategy descriptions on the SILL were taken from a comprehensive taxonomy of language learning strategies that systematically cover the four language skills of listening, reading, speaking and writing (Oxford, 1990: 293-296; Van der Walt & Dreyer, 1995a:130). The SILL covers sixty-two separate strategies subdivided into 19 strategy sets, which are grouped into six strategy sections, and each section represents a particular group of strategies as set out in table 2.1 (Brown, 1994:202; Oxford, 1990:16). The validity and reliability of the SILL have been established (Van der Walt & Dreyer, 1995b:310).
Table 2.1 Description of the sections of the SILL
Section Group Strategy function
A Memory strategies Remembering more effectively B Cognitive strategies Using all mental processes
C Compensation strategies Compensating for missing knowledge D Metacognitive strategies Organising and evaluating one's own learning E Affective strategies Managing one's emotions
F Social strategies Learning with others Source: Oxford (1990:16-17 & 293-296)
The strategies in sections A-C are direct strategies and involve the mental processing of the target language (English in this study), while sections D-F contain indirect strategies which support the learning process.
The SILL was field-tested at the Defence Language Institute in Monterey, California in November 1995. Oxford and an independent language expert conducted a content validity assessment of the SILL and they found it adequately and fairly represented the range of potential learning strategies. Concurrent and construct validity can be assumed based on the demonstration of strong relationships between SILL factors and self-ratings of language proficiency and language motivation as reported in Oxford and Nyikos (1989). The reliability of the SILL was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha on the field test data, the internal consistency reliability was 0.95 based on the DLI test sample and 0.96 based on a 1200 person university sample (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Van der Walt & Dreyer, 1995a:130).
2.4 THE INSTITUTIONAL PAPER-BASED TOEFL
PROFICIENCY TEST
The North American private educational measurement organisation, Educational Testing Service (ETS), has various English proficiency tests, of which the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is perhaps the most commonly used worldwide. Most people who take the TOEFL test are planning to study at colleges and universities where instruction is in English.
Each form of the current paper-based TOEFL test consists of three separately-timed sections. The questions in each section are multiple-choice and each question has four options. Answers on multiple-choice paper sheets are computer scored. The total test time is approximately 150 minutes. Language specialists prepare TOEFL test materials according to overall guidelines for test content as specified by the TOEFL Committee of Examiners. All items are reviewed for cultural bias and content appropriateness according to established ETS procedures. The TOEFL test has its focus on American English and this could be a weakness when used in a country where British English is predominant (as in South Africa). A strength of the TOEFL test is that it is available all over the world, thus making comparison of English proficiency more reliable.
Section 1: Listening and comprehension
Here the ability to understand English as it is spoken in North America is measured. Oral features of the language are stressed and the items tested include vocabulary and idiomatic
expression as well as frequently used grammatical constructions in spoken English. The stimulus material and oral questions are recorded in standard North American English.
Section 2: Structure and written expression
This section measures the recognition of selected structural and grammatical points in standard, formal written North American English. Topics of sentences are of a general academic nature to avoid discrimination and particular advantage to certain groups.
Section 3: Reading comprehension
The ability to read and understand short passages that are similar in topic and style to what North American students would encounter in tertiary studies, is measured. Test participants read a variety of short passages on academic subjects and answer a few questions about each passage. Questions test information stated or implied, as well as knowledge of some specific words used in the passage. (http://www.ets.org) (download date 4 July 2004)
Table 2.2 Explanation of the paper-based TOEFL score ranges ETS Test and Test
Section Score Scale Range B1 Minimum Score C1 Minimum Score TOEFL PBT Total 310 – 677 457 560 TOEFL PBT Listening 31 – 68 46 56 TOEFL PBT Reading 31 – 67 46 56 TOEFL PBT Structure 31 – 68 45 56 Source: (http://www.ets.org)
As indicated in the above table, this test has a score scale range of 310-677 and although the Educational Testing Service (ETS) regards a CI (Effective Operational Proficiency Level) score of a minimum of 560 necessary for admission to tertiary studies through the medium of English, Stellenbosch University deems a prospective student with a minimum score of 550 on this test to have sufficient proficiency in English to pursue post-graduate studies through the medium of English. ETS research indicates that a student with a minimum CI score of 560 can be regarded to have the following skills:
- the ability to understand a wide range of demanding texts, recognising implicit meaning,
- the ability to use English language effectively for social, academic and professional purposes,
- the ability to produce succinct, well-constructed, detailed text on complex subjects, using controlled organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive constructions. (http://www.ets.org) (download date 4 July 2004).
With particular reference to the language skills of listening and reading, ETS have found that a CI score of 56 on both Listening and Reading would be adequate English proficiency in those language skills to enable a person to complete tertiary studies through the medium of English. A student with a CI minimum of 56 is regarded to have the following abilities with regard to Listening:
- can understand enough English to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics beyond his field of study,
- can recognise a wide range of idiomatic English expressions, - can follow extended speech even if it is not structured,
- can easily follow complex interactions between parties in group discussions.
A student with a CI minimum of 56 is regarded to have the following abilities with regard to Reading:
- can understand detail in lengthy, complex text even in reading materials unrelated to his field of study/specialisation,
- can understand in detail a wide range of lengthy, complex texts in social, professional and academic context and identify finer points and hidden implications. (http://www.ets.org) (download date 4 July 2004).
It is very important to mention that this TOEFL test did not test for proficiency in writing and speaking, but only for reading and listening. The test is by no means considered to be a reflection of the test takers’ complete English language proficiency. The test is also constructed in an American context which could impact unfavourably on students who are not familiar with their culture and context. However, it is widely used because it is a standardised instrument which is regarded as having a high degree of validity and reliability.