Noción y contenido del Principio de Supremacía constitucional desde la perspectiva

The perspective of the parent participants is perhaps the most pivotal aspect of this

research. This brief section aims to demonstrate ideas African-American parents seem to share as they have traversed the educational system. Additionally, some of their ideas as it relates to school choices for their children will be explored.

Black parents notice that there are apparent deficiencies in America’s schooling system pertaining to their Black children (McKay, Atkins, Hawkins, Brown, & Lynn 2003; Fields-Smith & Williams, 2008; Stevenson & Arrington, 2012; Cooper, 2005). America’s schooling system fails to offer Black students non-racialized forms of education. Hegemony, racism, sexism, and other varying forms of oppression constantly plague Black children in educational contexts (Stevenson & Arrington, 2012; Shujaa, 1993; Asante 1991; Hilliard 1995; McKay, et. al., 2003).

Stevenson and Arrington (2012) identify many key themes in relation to parents and their school-making decisions. The first theme, buffering racial/ethnic identity protection and

affirmation, articulates the desires of parents to socialize their children. Specifically, socialization through racial/ethnic pride and legacy teaching. The second theme identified focuses on teaching racial coping and agency strategies. This theme explains how parents help youth resituate discrimination as the problem of the oppressor. The third theme centered on understanding the ways in which schools are natural sites of racial socialization (Stevenson & Arrington, 2012).

Fields-Smith and Williams (2008) found that Black parents feel that “institutional norms and structures within schools created destructive, rather than supportive, learning environments

for children of African descent” (Fields-Smith & Williams, 2008, p. 376). Additionally, parents have “experiences with, inequities, prejudice, discrimination, or racism in public and private schools,” and wish to provide more positive educational experiences for their children. In a study conducted by Eric D. Howard (2015), he articulates the perceptions of African-American parents on public school and their level of involvement. From his research, he found that many parents were heavily involved in their child’s education for varied reasons. When asked: “What do African American parents think the changes should be in the school district?” Many parents recognized a strong need for more teachers to be knowledgeable of the cultures of their children. They advocated for the presence of African-American teachers, and suggested that their students would perform better educationally and behaviorally as a result.

Cooper (2005) argues that parents of color select schools for legitimate reasons that are heavily influenced by the needs of their families. She finds that African-American mothers “educational views, experiences, and choices reveals that race, class, and gender factors are critical to their school decision-making, in which the mothers perceive traditional public schools as sites of sociopolitical and cultural resistance” (Cooper, 2005, p. 176). She goes on to suggest that there is such a disparity in African-American (and other minority groups) parental

perspective and school choice literature because much of the established literature is firmly grounded in traditional views that are generalized to all parents. This traditional perspective does not adequately reflect the “decision-making, values, or beliefs of parents of color” (Cooper, 2005, p. 176).

In 2015, Brian Ray examined reasons why African-American parents choose to

homeschool their children. Although in the context of homeschooling, the findings of this study speak directly to this research and ways in which African-American parents seek alternative

methods for educating their children. Ray found that some of these African-American parents choose to homeschool to give their child a better understanding of Black culture and history (Ray, 2015.) Specifically, he created a list of 21 possible reasons that could motivate these parents to seek an alternative form of education for their children. From this list, the six choices most commonly listed were: (a) the parents ‘prefer to teach the child at home so that you [parent] can provide religious or moral instruction’ (chosen by 96.3% of parents), (b) ‘for the parents to transmit values, beliefs, and worldview to the child’(95.1%), (c) ‘develop stronger family relationships between children and parents and among brothers and sisters’ (87.7%), (d) ‘to customize or individualize the education of each child’ (80.2%), (e) ‘accomplish more

academically than in conventional schools’ (76.5%), and (f) ‘want to provide religious or moral instruction different from that taught in public schools (76.5%) (Ray, 2015, p. 83). Many of these ideas reflect those put forth in African-centered understandings of education.

In response to these prominent issues, Black parents find alternative methods for

educating their children. The African-centered school offered a differing environment fostering many things that Black parents wished to see manifested in their child’s life. African-centered schools aided Black parents in creating ways to educate their children that would ultimately benefit them culturally, behaviorally, socially, and academically (Asante 1991; Nobles 1990; Karenga, 1995, Pollard & Ajirotutu, 2000; Stevenson & Arrington, 2012; Howard, 2015; Brady & Simpson; Murrell, 2002; Fields-Smith and Williams, 2008).

2.5 Summary

In this chapter, the researcher has provided a brief context to support the need for this study. We can see how African-Americans have made many strides to educate themselves, communities, and most importantly, their children for many years. Over time, African-American

parents became displeased with the ways in which their children were receiving education, and began to seek alternatives for properly educating their children. With the rise of independent black institutions and African-centered schools in the 1960’s and 1970’s we can see this alternative to traditional education come into fruition. Presently, we have a multitude of examples of thriving African-centered institutions and programs where African-American

students grow academically and personally. Critiques of this form of education were discussed to illustrate issues that plague it, and ways in which it falters. Lastly, parent perspectives were explored. As they are key in this research, their perspectives in relation to the deficiencies in public schooling, and opinions on school choice is influential to this discussion. In the chapter that follows the researcher will demonstrate the methods that will be taken to ultimately uncover why African-American parents send their children to African-centered institutions, if the

institution is having a positive impact on their child, and if the institution has equipped their child for the future.

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Questions

As a focus of this work, the researcher examined parents’ perspectives on the influence of African-centered institutions on their African-American children’s educational success.

Ultimately, the research aimed to answer the following questions:

1. What motivates African-American parents to place their children in African- centered schools?

2. In what ways do African-American parents feel the African-centered institution is influencing the success of their children?