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The effect rapid weight loss has on mood was another concern reported by jockeys in Speed et al.’s (2001) study. Thirteen percent of retired jockeys indicated that emotional distress was a major problem during their career and that prolonged wasting was the main source of distress.

Given that athletic performance is significantly affected by mood before and during competition (Beedie, Terry, & Lane, 2000; Prapavessis, 2000; Terry, 2000, 2004; Vallerand & Blanchard, 2000), jockeys’ mood on race day may be a factor that affects performance. Identifying the most favourable mood state for competition is not entirely straightforward. Both pleasant and unpleasant moods have been associated with optimal and substandard performance. Unpleasant moods may be advantageous in certain circumstances, while pleasant moods may be detrimental to performance in sports that require more stoicism (Hanin, 2000).

Recent research on affective states generally agrees that there are two main polar dimensions of mood: (1) valence or pleasure-displeasure and (2) perceived activation or arousal (Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 2002; Vallerand & Blanchard, 2000). This structure has been referred to as the circumplex model and has been shown to be consistent across developmental stages, cultures and analytical methodologies. The two dimensions are usually represented by a graph that forms four affectively variant quadrants, two sections representing high and low pleasure and the other two sections representing high and low activation. Thus, each quadrant represents:

(1) High activation and unpleasant affect (e.g., anger); (2) High activation and pleasant affect (e.g., energetic); (3) Low activation and unpleasant affect (e.g., fatigue);

(4) Low activation and pleasant affect (e.g., relaxed).

Mood descriptors are systematically positioned around the circumference of a circle based on their underlying properties (degree of combination on the two

dimensions) and relationship with each other (see Figure 1). Similar affective states are grouped together, while antithetical moods are placed at 180o from each other (Daniels, 2000; Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 2002; Lane & Terry, 2000; Posner, Russell, & Peterson, 2005; J. A. Russell, 1980; Terry, 2000; Vallerand & Blanchard, 2000; Warr, 1990; Yik, Russell, & Feldman Barrett, 1999).

Figure 1. Graphical representation of the circumplex model of affect with the horizontal axis representing the valence dimension and the vertical axis representing the arousal or activation dimension (Posner et al., 2005, p. 716).

Ekkekakis and Petruzzello (2002) argued that the utility of the circumplex model is its use of a few dimensions to account for much of the variability among

affective states. This means that the circumplex model reflects differences and similarities among affective states in terms of two dimensions only, but also allows breadth of scope.

Weight Management and Mood

Generally, the effect of dieting on mood is not positive (Kenardy et al., 2001; Keys et al., 1950). Keys et al. (1950) found that dietary restriction has a negative impact on mood. During the semi-starvation period, participants in the study reported increased depression, irritability, apathy and fatigue and mood swings, in comparison to the control period. During the semi-starvation period, participants reported a greater number of complaints. There was a 59% increase in periods of downheartedness, 46% increase tiredness during the day, 19% increase in mood swings and 15% increase in having spells of the blues in comparison to the control period. Observations indicated that participants were less tolerant, even-tempered and happy in comparison to the control period. Despite being aware of irritability, participants often had angry outbursts, periods of sulking and there were cases of some participants bullying others. The group was generally more serious and apathetic and some people had strong urges towards violence. It is interesting to note that even the participant who was thought to show the “least psychological deterioration” was “lethargic, mildly depressed and somewhat irritable” (p. 881). Four participants were unable to complete the semi-starvation period due to severe adverse psychological responses (e.g.,

Stanga, Field, Iff, Stucki, Lobo and Allison (2007) examined 22

undernourished patients who had lost more than 5% of their body weight in one month (associated with gastrointestinal disease) and measured mood at the beginning and end of an eight-day nutrition treatment program. It was found that patients

showed a significant improvement in depression, anger, vigour, fatigue, confusion and tension scores on the POMS (Profile of Mood States) questionnaire, after 8 days of nutritional support.

Weight Management, Mood and Athletes

The findings reported by Keys et al. (1950) and Stanga et al. (2007) support the contention that most people undergoing food restriction experience a range of negative emotions. The limited scientific research investigating weight loss in sport and mood supports this notion as most studies have found an association between rapid weight loss and negative changes in mood.

For example, Filaire et al. (2001) tested 11 male judoka before and after 7 days of dietary restraint. They measured mood using the POMS and found that judokas experienced increased negative mood after a period of dietary restraint. Before the period of dietary restraint, judoka reported mean scores higher than average for vigour and below average for tension, depression, anger, fatigue and confusion. This profile has been called the “iceberg” profile and has been identified by researchers as desirable mood profile for successful sportspeople (Hassmen, Koivula, & Torsten, 1998). Following major weight loss, the profile was altered with

vigour lower and tension, anger, fatigue and confusion scores higher (Filaire et al., 2001).

Newton et al. (1993) conducted a similar study examining six male and two female body builders who had reduced calorie intake over 12 weeks to lose 7.3 kg (5% body fat) and 2.4 kg (3.7% body fat) respectively. During the weight-loss period, body builders showed a strong trend towards greater fatigue, tension, confusion, depression and reduced vigour.

Choma, Sforzo and Keller (1998) examined college wrestlers and found negative affect increased after rapid weight loss. Fourteen wrestlers, who lost a minimum of 5% of body weight, completed measures of mood and cognitive ability 1 week before competition, 18 to 24 hours before competition, immediately after weigh- ins, and 72 hours after competition (after rehydration and food consumption). Scores on the POMS-R (revised) showed that wrestlers affect was more negative after weight loss, with higher scores for tension, depression, anger, fatigue and confusion in

comparison with the control group (15 participants not using rapid weight-loss techniques). Wrestlers’ mood states returned to baseline levels after drinking and eating. A weakness of the study was that control participants’ pre-competition affect (e.g. anxiety) and eating and drinking behaviour were not assessed during the period immediately prior to competing.

Landers, Arent and Lutz (2001) included a non-rapid weight loss control group in a study of 45 competitive wrestlers. Fourteen assigned to the control group maintained weight within 1% of their normal body mass. The remaining 31 were assigned to the rapid weight-loss group required to lose more than 1% body weight (mean=6.34%). Five to 10 days prior to competition, and 8 to 12 hours prior to weigh- in, all wrestlers completed the PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) and

cognitive tests. Positive affect decreased significantly from baseline testing to weigh- in testing and there were correlations between the percent of weight lost and positive and negative affect, with positive mood decreasing and negative mood increasing with weight loss.

Similar findings were reported by Terry et al. (1999) who examined 103 junior lightweight and heavyweight rowers before a competition. Rowers’ responses on the POMS-C (children) indicated greater mood disturbance (depression, confusion, tension) in lightweight compared to heavyweight rowers (who did not lose weight prior to competition).

Lane (2001) explored the effects of rapid weight loss on mood and

performance in 16 experienced amateur boxers. Structured interviews were used to determine strategies that each boxer used to lose weight. Boxers then completed four, 2-minute circuit sessions (1 min recovery between each) at their usual training weight. Using the same methods they applied prior to tournaments, boxers dropped body weight by an average of 5.16% in one week. Methods included restricting food (for the week) and fluid intake (for at least one day prior). Mood was assessed using the POMS-A (adolescent). Rapid weight loss was significantly associated with higher scores for anger, fatigue and tension.

Yoshioka, Umeda, Nakaji, Kojima, Tanabe, Mochida and Sugawara (2006) examined gender differences between 27 male (22 weight reduction, 5 non-weight reduction) and 16 female (8 weight reduction, 8 non-weight reduction) judokas’ mood before and after weight loss using fluid restriction, dietary restraint and exercise. Using the POMS to measure mood, their findings indicated that while males

experienced greater mood disturbance after losing 3.4% of their body weight, females showed increased negative mood just prior to losing 4.9% of their body weight. It was

suggested by the authors that it was the idea of weight loss, rather than the actual weight reduction, that generated anxiety for female judoka. The researchers

speculated that once female judoka started losing weight anxiety decreased because of successful progress or because of positively perceived aesthetic changes.

These studies show that making weight can add to the emotional load of participation (Beals & Manore, 1994; Fraser, 2001; Lane, 2001). Jockeys are constantly monitoring weight and regularly using extreme methods to lose weight (Baptiste, 2000a; Lane, 2001). These findings suggest that jockeys’ physical and psychological wellbeing is probably in jeopardy for much of their working life.

Weight Management, Mood and Jockeys

Jockeys frequently report that theirs lives are consumed by constant efforts to maintain and lose weight and that they also live a life of sacrifice and pressure that can have a high cost both mentally and socially (Baptiste, 2000a; Bartley, 2007b; Eddy, 2007; Lane, 2001). Despite much anecdotal evidence, there is little scientific research examining the consequences of the extreme strategies jockeys use to make weight on their mood and wellbeing.

M.B. King and Mezey (1987) did not include a formal measure of mood in their study, but interviews revealed that a significant number of jockeys reported increased irritability and decreased drive and energy during periods of wasting.

A more recent study in the United Kingdom by Caulfield, Karageorghis, Terry and Chatzisarantis (2003) examined mood and eating attitudes in 41 male professional flat and jump jockeys. Jockeys completed the POMS–A questionnaire and the EAT

while at their lightest riding weight, their optimal riding weight and their relaxed (out of competition) weight. It was found that rapid weight loss impacted negatively on mood, with the most significant effects observed on anger, depression, vigour, confusion and tension evident between the lightest riding weight and relaxed weight.

Much of the evidence concerning jockeys mood disturbances associated with weight loss is anecdotal. Jockeys have reported being miserable and depressed when wasting (Christine, 2001; Eddy, 2007) and upset when breaking restrictive diets, “sometimes you let yourself go and have a pizza but I had to pay the price the next day and I’d hate everybody who was with me” (Baptiste, 2000a, p. 31).

One reporter, while interviewing a jockey about his successful career, attributed his pale complexion and extremely grumpy mood to weight loss (Eddy, 2007). Several authors have referred to dehydration and malnutrition as a possible cause of irritability, depression, mood swings and emotional upset (Henke, 1999; Hillenbrand, 2001; Hislop, 2002). For one jockey who struggled with his weight, a quick temper and rudeness meant that he was associated with more than six different stables during his apprenticeship. Eventually he left racing because of the pressures of wasting (Bartley, 2007b). Hillenbrand (2001) goes as far as to describe a situation where a legendary nineteenth century jockey’s constant battle to make weight contributed to severe depression and eventual suicide.

Another case where the combination of wasting and riding was thought to contribute to negative mood states led to a year-long ban for a jockey who was verbally and physically violent towards a steward (Prendergast, 2001). More recently an Australian jockey hit (once with his open hand and once with his whip) another jockey as they passed the finish line. He cited psychological stress from wasting, riding at light weights and driving long distances to race meetings in high

temperatures, as factors that contributed to his violent outburst. He said that long hours of wasting had dramatically reduced his tolerance levels “you get dehydrated and sometimes you do get cranky” (Cormick, 2006, p. 52). Cormick (2006) also mentions two other incidents that occurred in 2006 that involved jockeys being physically violent towards one another. The incidents of physical violence and angry outbursts by jockeys have led to the inclusion of jockeys’ lifestyle, poor nutrition and dehydration as topics for discussion at the national safety review carried out by the Australian Racing Board (Cormick, 2006).