Nuevas perspectivas con la publicación del DSM 5

Tickell (2010) performed a study investigating Fiji attempt to migrate to accrual basis of accounting and financial reporting format. The study utilised a qualitative fieldwork research in 1994, 2004, and 2008 employing semi-structured interviews for data collection to determine the reform stages, adopted strategies, and the level of success in each attempt. Findings - due to low skilled public service, high turnover, and insufficient level of infrastructure capital and equipments it is recommended to taking a different approach from that used by developing countries. In conclusion, a number of recommendations were presented. Key personnel have to be well compensated to be kept from moving out to the private sector, project leaders underestimating the level of training on a daily base required for staff that will carry out the implementation of accrual basis procedures, willingness of the nation to spend on upgrading the country infrastructure (e.g., computer hardware), and so on.

The study highlights the importance of a nation to understand its capabilities. Nations should determine their needs and design the projects to fits their needs. Concentration was made on skilled staff-retaining and adequate IT infrastructure has to be maintained.

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Connolly et al. (2006); to determine the main benefits and drawbacks that have been experienced as a result of implementing accruals basis (resource) accounting in UK public sector, a case study approach was used and data collected by semi-structured interviews with key actors who were involved in the implementation, maintenance, and oversight of resource accounting in Northern Ireland. The study, from the point of view of the accountants who are involved in the application of the new system and can evaluate it, looks at the function of the new system. The findings show that the actual implementation of accruals accounting is very different from the planned implementation in terms of cost and timing. The outcome is an expensive and complex system, which provides little benefits until now. In conclusion, a continuum and lengthy change has to start very soon.

Ellwood et al. (2007) based the assumption that accrual basis of accounting development and adoption in the public sector is a technical tool intended improve transparency and accountability, and examined the role of public sector accounting in implementing neo- liberal reforms. A comparative methodology used on the development and use of accrual basis of accounting in UK and New Zealand public sector financial management reforms. Findings propose that accrual basis of accounting in both nations provides a means, which reduces the government’s role to purchaser of services and rules – set by others – enforcer. Thus, promoting privatisation and trade liberalisation, this goes with neo-liberal principles. It shows that accrual basis of accounting’s need for neutral information across and between sectors is not there rather accrual basis of accounting appear to function as a political instrument that is used to come over controversial issues. Therefore, looking at the overall effect of public sector financial reforms and the role and implications of accounting standard setters is needed.

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Saleh & Pendlebury (2006) examined the developments of governmental accounting in Malaysia and the potential of Malaysian government to adopt accruals accounting. The study utilises a comparative approach between UK and Malaysia (which concentrated on management accounting initiatives since the 1960’s) on the move to accruals accounting. The study described, based on data collected from a survey, the views and opinions of Malaysian government accountants on the possibility of the developments and innovations of external reporting by the government of Malaysia. The study revealed significant factors in the development of governmental accounting in Malaysia; increased professionalism, technological change, demand from public, financial crisis, political incentives, and demand from creditors. The change to accruals accounting for external financial reporting is little; however, in Malaysia the willingness to adopt private sector remedies suggests that accrual accounting is capable of providing a measure of full cost of resources consumed might be as an attractive option. In conclusion, the study of the Malaysian context contributes to the debates on the use of accruals accounting and provides an assessment to the government of Malaysia to consider in improving its financial management procedures.

Arnaboldi et al. (2009) examined the implementation of accrual basis of accounting in local government in Mat-land. It draws on Mat-land’s ambiguity conflict model of 1995. A combined research approach used – analysis of public documents and debates - a survey of local authority capital accountants and information case study of management's. The study revealed complex reform initiative outcomes, which resulted in maintaining the accounting changes within the domain of accounting having limited effect on the potential majority of information users.

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Barton (2007) examined the Australian Government accounting and budgeting dual systems and suggest improvements. He affirmed that government nature and role determines its financial management information and reporting requirements and the information should be relevant, reliable, comparable and understandable. He regrets the quick termination of the traditional Australian cash accounting and budgeting system when accrual basis of accounting was adopted and argued that ordinary cash information is still needed. It is declared that accrual basis of accounting was needed for improved management information and evaluates the two systems adopted; the Government Finance Statistics system (GFS), and the Australian Accounting Standards system (AAS). He Categorised and explained their differences and the shortcomings of each one. Currently it shows that the system of two different sets of budget and financial statements has no timely cash information is unsustainable. He suggested the re-introduction of cash basis accounting and budgeting again based on GFS as a component of a single accrual accounting system but comprising the best features of AAS as well. In conclusion, the study pointed out deficiencies in Australian government accounting and provided solutions.

Vinarri & Näsi (2008) investigated the effects of applying private-sector accounting models to a Finnish city and its water utility. The study detailed the theoretical background and the required accrual accounting used in the Finnish municipal sector for both budgeting and financial accounting. Describes how the city and its water utility reported infrastructure assets, income, and expenses for the period (1994-2004) in an innovative way. The regulation of municipal accounting permits more room for creative accounting than general accounting standards does, in particular to asset valuation and charges for water services. Since in the city an investor in (not a provider of) essential services permitted it to use the investments of past generations in the water utility to finance deficit spending, this violates

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transparency. In conclusion, accrual basis of accounting might be misused in the public sector thus; further review and developments and clear regulation of public sector accounting practices is needed.

Andriani et al. (2010) examined accrual basis of accounting information usefulness used for decision-making process internal context in the public sector of west Australia. A questionnaire survey approach is used. Data collected from public sector managers. Results found that accrual accounting is more useful than cash accounting in 16 out of 19 of the decision in such circumstances. This indicated that perceived usefulness of accrual accounting system is continuously improving. The perceptions of information usefulness derived from an accounting system over time will change, as users get experience and gain familiarity with the system.

Robinson (1998) critically evaluate the arguments on the application of accrual basis of accounting to non-profit core government activities and use of the 'deprival value' variant of current cost accounting for decision making in the Australian public sector. This demonstrates the defects in current cost accounting by discussing the use of full costs in in- house bids for competitive tendering and as measures of performance, compares the capital charging systems used in Australia, New Zealand and the UK; arguing that while they may improve decision making for investments cost reduction; they are unsuitable for other cases. This summarises accrual basis of accounting role in representing the fiscal position of the public sector and the implications it carries for accounting methodology.

Falkman & Tagesson (2008), describes and explains the outcomes of Sweden municipal accounting reforms. In Mid-1980s, Sweden municipal administration was decentralised.

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Lay down municipal accounting reforms, noting that like private accounting legislation, this provides a framework referring to a standard-setting body. The Council for Municipal Accounting, consequently increasing the importance of standards, decrees and guidelines.

Developments and tests, hypotheses based on positive accounting theory using empirical data for the financial year 2003 :-

- Based on an e-mail survey;

- Secondary data from the Association of Local Authorities, from the four foremost auditing firms and from the municipalities; and interviews with 12 municipalities financial managers. He finds little impact of the standards issued by the Council of Municipal Accounting on municipalities actual accounting practices. He explains that it is due to limited competence, negative attitudes of accounts preparers, shortage of audit quality, and ambiguous standards. He believes Sweden municipal accounting reforms lack the essential institutional mechanism needed to legitimise the reform. Adds that weak accounting norms in the context of the accounting system drove to a situation where municipalities and their officials are able to respond to the accounting norm system with differently, depending on their own circumstances and political self-interest.

Guthrie (1998) argues that accrual basis of accounting adoption in the Australian public sector seen as a means to change its extent and approach identifies its four main features; financial reporting, management systems, whole of government reporting (through consolidation), and budgeting. Discusses the thought benefits of the accrual basis of accounting approach, compares it with previous cash basis accounting system and delineates its development along with other administrative reforms. He takes into

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consideration the relationship between 'rhetoric and reality' regarding the benefits in each of the four identified areas, condemning the naive acceptance that accrual accounting is a 'good thing' and that commercial processes can be applied to public sector activities. In conclusion, further research on the actual effects of these accounting policies’ changes.

Carlin (2005) inspects the impact of accrual basis of accounting (AA) and financial reporting on the public sector globally; and compares it with that in the Australian public and private sectors. He Lays down the moves towards AA in the public sector internationally and critically analyses the related research debates. He points out that the impact and role of AA should be looked at as antecedents to interrelated reforms. He compares one Australian state’s public sector agencies financial reporting (1998-2001) with a listed company's sample, to display the differences in their approaches to asset valuation.

Government departments use historic cost to value (less than a third of) their assets (with replacement cost the most popular alternative) however, companies in the private sector use it for about 85% of their assets. Government departments have higher asset valuation increments and depreciation charges, in spite of having less capital intensive and use longer asset lives. He points out that this affects cost estimation and therefore resource allocation decisions, eg. when comparing public and private sector costs. In conclusion, more systematic and direct approaches to identify the consequences of the adoption of accrual basis of accounting are needed.

Torres (2004) examines accrual basis of accounting implementation in governmental financial reporting, evaluating the extent to which such method of financial reporting has been adopted and whether evidence that government accounting systems are met. Utilising

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comparative approach, this study compares governmental accounting systems in 22 Anglo- Saxon countries - Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, and the USA; the Nordic countries of Denmark, Sweden, Finland and the Netherlands; the European continental countries of Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland, and the Mercosus countries of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia and Chile. He utilised International Public Sector Accounting Standard as a benchmark to evaluate government accounting and reporting systems. He compares government financial reports’ contents and examines the extent to which they contain the recommended information to be disclosed by the standard. The results identify the link between the use of the accrual basis of accounting for financial reporting and the introduction of public sector reform, specifically New Public Management, suggesting that it is to some degree due to the heterogeneity among the government accounting systems. Relating to governmental accrual basis of accounting, in conclusion, the research shows that it can fit public administration styles in both developed and developing countries.

Tikk (2010) reviews the implementation of accrual basis of accounting in the Estonian public sector entities, provides a brief overview of governmental accounting theories’ historical developments, and examines the introduction of accounting policy based theory. Major problems and risks associated with the introduction of accounting system change process elaborated and proper solutions offered. A comparative and descriptive approach is used.

The results show that accrual basis of accounting provides financial information that is needed for decision making objectives, which improve the quality and the quantity of services provided to the citizens. Estonian accounting regulation succeeded and had a

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remarkable evolution. However, the transition to accrual accounting created many problems that needed to be solved. In conclusion, the results of this study contribute to economic growth and development of business environment. Research studies on the move to accrual basis of accounting by public sector entities are quite scarce.

McKendrick (2007) performs a study of current developments in the Romanian government accounting specifically the introduction of accrual basis of accounting instated of the cash basis accounting. It assesses the application of the new system for attending EU membership by 2007 as an incentive for reform change in Central and Eastern Europe countries thereafter, and details the process in Romania. Reviews on governmental accounting innovation theories taking into account the Romanian experience in order to draw from the study some conclusions. In conclusion, the following matters:-

- A comprehensive and regularly update of the financial regulations;

- A strategy and timing for decentralisation and independence of audit units; - Enough time for the introduction of accrual basis of accounting;

- Qualified staff have to be involved in the reform process; - Management commitment and support;

- A capacity building of technical innovations that goes with institutional needs; and - Staff training; and insuring the quality of information produced, must be considered

for a successful implementation of accrual basis of accounting.

Vickland & Nieuwenhuijs (2005) specified a number of significant factors contributed to the successful implementation of the public sector financial management information system in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). It was funded by USAID and implemented by Emerging Markets Group within the period of (1999 – 2004), aiming at

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modernising accounting practices and contributing to a more transparent efficient public sector. The study describes the project’s environmental context, intention, features, challenges, and barriers. It carries on by outlining the critical success factors contributed to the success of the intended project in a tough environment. The project implemented in a rather unique environment since its initiation after the end of the civil war and the formation of the country. The country inherited the payment systems from former – socialist - Yugoslavian. No proper public financial management systems exist. Therefore, the project team essentially started from scratch. The project team planned and implemented the accrual basis of accounting system, in a deferent matter done in many other countries, relieving the government from transforming their financial management system from cash basis accounting to accrual basis of accounting.

Tiron & Blidisel (2007) reports on the experiences of applying accrual basis of accounting information in the public sector higher education in Romania, contributing to a better understanding of the prospects of using accrual basis of accounting in public entities. The change from cash basis to accrual basis of accounting points out to a change in conception for that human resource role is material. Financial accounting departments’ specialist is fundamental. Therefore, the centre objective of this study is to examine the perceptions of Romanian public sector higher education institutions’ accountants and finance officers on the adoption and implementation of accrual basis of accounting. It utilised a mix method approach logical empiricism positive. Data (quantitative) was collected through questionnaire survey and qualitative semi-structured interviews with senior management to gain their views and rationale on the implementation of accrual basis of accounting. The interview function is to support the questionnaire survey. The results show and confirm the transition to accrual basis of accounting and other techniques of the private sector to the

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public higher education sector. The findings from both the questionnaire survey and the interviews shows that public sector higher education entities, accountants, and finance officers agree with accounting and financial departments’ heads on the use of accrual basis of accounting. There are difficulties (barriers) to the feasibility of implementing accrual basis of accounting and long-term benefits will surpass the costs of the system’s implementation. The human factor is considered very important and material to the success of the reform change because people are affected by any reform change directly or indirectly.

Jorge et al. (2007) describes and analyses the Portuguese status in governmental accounting reform, aiming at discussing the implementation of accrual basis of accounting in governmental units by addressing the reasons lies behind the problems related to putting the accrual basis of accounting system into practice and in reading the generated information from the system (accrual basis financial statements).

The study addresses five main sections. After the introduction, section presents a description of the Portuguese public administration and governmental accounting reform and harmonisation with international context. Section 3 detailed the country’s financial management and accounting recent reform changes and the current state of the reform. He then presented the recent studies carried out on the country reform and implementation of accruals accounting by highlighting the issues related to the new system application. The last section of the study, discusses why accrual basis of accounting might be a problem in other countries. In conclusion, for good results to be presented in reality the implementation of accrual basis of accounting system needs more time and users of information have to learn how to read and use financial and economic information presented from the new system.

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Christiaens & Vanhee (2002) summarises the technical problems associated with the introducing of business like accounting next to the existing and completely different cash basis (cameralistic) accounting in governments. He tries to point out to the many accounting disagreements are attributable to the lack of knowledge and practical means of merging harmoniously the diverse governmental accounting systems, which is a prerequisite for NPM application. Taking into consideration prior research findings, a