Objetivos Específicos

The CFD - HAM model developed in this work proved to be a valuable tool for the prediction of the impact of airflows and local (micro-)climates on the hygric response of individual objects. This information can contribute to a better assess- ment of the risk of moisture related damage when designing HVAC installations for museums, churches, . . . Although this thesis focussed on the hygrothermal re- sponse only, it would be very interesting to combine the new model with a damage model to take local, time dependent effects into account in the damage assessment. A second alternative for future research concerns the hygrothermal model it- self. The model developed in this work is well suited for the simulation of the hy- grothermal response of unsaturated materials in the hygroscopic range (RH <98%) as, for example, artworks in a museum. Yet, to simulate the drying of a saturated porous material, the overhygroscopic range has to be modelled. In the overhy- groscopic range moisture transfer is dominated by liquid transport. When drying saturated media, the effect of the airflow and transfer coefficients is more dom- inant than in the case of drying materials in the hygroscopic range, because the resistance for vapour transport in the boundary layer is larger than the resistance for liquid transport in the material. A logical next step in the modelling of hy- grothermal air - material interaction is thus the conversion of the newly developed CFD - HAM vapour transfer model into a CFD - HAM vapour / liquid transfer model. By adding liquid transport to the model the applicability would be ex- tended to other disciplines such as material drying for industrial applications or the drying of the exterior cladding of building facades.

A

Publications

Journal Publications as first author

H.J. Steeman, A. Janssens, J. Carmeliet and M. De Paepe. Modelling indoor air and hygrothermal wall interaction in building simulation: Comparison between CFD and a well-mixed zonal model. Building and Environment, 44(3):572-583, 2009.

H.J. Steeman, A. Janssens and M. De Paepe. On the applicability of the heat and mass transfer analogy in indoor air flows. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 52(5-6):1431-1442, 2009.

H.J. Steeman, C. T’Joen, M. Van Belleghem, A. Janssens and M. De Paepe. Evalu- ation of the different definitions of the convective mass transfer coefficient for water evaporation into air. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 52:3757- 3766, 2009.

H.J. Steeman, M. Van Belleghem, A. Janssens and M. De Paepe. Coupled simula- tion of heat and moisture transport in air and porous materials for the assessment of moisture related damage. Building and Environment, 44:2176-2184, 2009.

164 APPENDIXA

Journal Publications as co-author

C. T’Joen, H.J. Steeman, A. Willockx and M. De Paepe. Determination of heat transfer and friction characteristics of an adapted inclined louvered fin. Experi- mental Thermal and Fluid Science, 30(4):319-327, 2006.

A. Willockx, G. De Mey, C. T’Joen, H.J. Steeman and M. De Paepe. Natural convection from a square disk in the intermediate Rayleigh range. Journal of Heat Transfer-Transactions of the Asme, 128(5):495-498, 2006.

C. T’Joen, A. Willockx, H.J. Steeman and M. De Paepe. Performance prediction of compact fin-and-tube heat exchangers in maldistributed airflow. Heat Transfer Engineering, 28(12):986-996, 2007.

A. Musa, H.J. Steeman and M. De Paepe. Performance of internal and exter- nal reforming molten carbonate fuel cell systems. Journal of Fuel Cell Science and Technology, 4(1):65-71, 2007.

Publications in Proceedings of International

Conferences

H.J. Steeman, C. T’Joen, A. Willockx, M. De Paepe and A. Janssens. CFD mod- elling of HAM transport in buildings: Boundary conditions. Research in Building Physics and Building Engineering, 535-542, 2006.

H.J. Steeman, A. Janssens and M. De Paepe. About the use of the heat and mass analogy in building simulation. In 12th Symposium for Building Physics 12. Bauklimatisches Symposium, 455-462, Dresden, Germany, 2007.

H.J. Steeman, A. Janssens and M. De Paepe. Coupling moisture transport in airflows and porous materials using CFD. In Nordic Symposium on Building Physics, 715-722, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2008.

References

[1] ASHRAE. Chapter 21: Museums, Galleries, Archives, and Libraries. In HVAC Applications. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air- Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, 2007.

[2] M. F. Mecklenburg. Determining the acceptable ranges of relative humidity and temperature in museums and galleries. Technical report, Smithsonian museum conservation institute, 2007.

[3] J. Carmeliet, S. Roels, and M. Bomberg. Chapter 29: Towards develop- ment of methods for assessment of moisture-originated damage. In Revised ASTM Moisture manual.

[4] A. Holm. IEA Annex41. Whole Building Heat, Air, Moisture response. Sub- task 4: Applications. Indoor environment, Energy, Durability. Technical report, International Energy Agency, 2008.

[5] G. Pavlogeorgatos. Environmental parameters in museums. Building and Environment, 38(12):1457–1462, 2003.

[6] J. Carmeliet. Durability of fiber reinforced renderings on outside insulation: a probabilistic approach based on nonlocal damage theory. PhD thesis, K.U. Leuven, 1992.

[7] J. Carmeliet and K. Van Den Abeele. Poromechanical approach de- scribing the moisture influence on the non-linear quasi-static and dy- namic behaviour of porous building materials. Materials and Structures, 37(268):271–280, 2004.

[8] Staf Roels, Peter Moonen, Kurt De Proft, and Jan Carmeliet. A coupled discrete-continuum approach to simulate moisture effects on damage pro- cesses in porous materials. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 195(52):7139–7153, 2006.

[9] Henk Schellen. Heating Monumental Churches: Indoor Climate and Preservation of Cultural Heritage. PhD thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, 2002.

166 REFERENCES

[10] U.S. Department of Energy. Building Energy Software Tools Direc- tory. http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/tools_ directory/.

[11] L. Fang, G. Clausen, and P. O. Fanger. Impact of Temperature and Humidity on the Perception of Indoor Air Quality. Indoor Air, 8(2):80–90, 1998. [12] B. Blocken and J. Carmeliet. Pedestrian wind conditions at outdoor plat-

forms in a high-rise apartment building: generic sub-configuration valida- tion, wind comfort assessment and uncertainty issues. Wind and Structures, 11(1):51–70, 2008.

[13] B. Blocken. Wind-driven rain on buildings: measurements, numerical mod- elling and applications. PhD thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 2004. [14] E. Bozonnet, R. Belarbi, and F. Allard. Modelling solar effects on the heat and mass transfer in a street canyon, a simplified approach. Solar Energy, 79(1):10–24, 2005.

[15] L. Gharbi, N. Ghrab-Morcos, and J.J. Roux. ZAER: A zonal model for large enclosures with combined stratification. International Journal of Ventila- tion, 3(1):11–20, 2004.

[16] Zhiqiang Zhai. Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Building Design: Aspects and Trends. Indoor and Built Environment, 15(4):305– 313, 2006.

[17] J. Gao, J. N. Zhao, X. D. Li, and F. S. Gao. A zonal model for large enclo- sures with combined stratification cooling and natural ventilation: Part 1 - Model generation and its procedure. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering- Transactions of the Asme, 128(3):367–375, 2006.

[18] H.E. Feustel and A. Raynor-Hoosen. Fundamentals of the multizone air flow model-COMIS. Technical note 29. Technical report, Air Infiltration and Ventilation Center, 1990.

[19] G.N. Walton. Contam96 User Manual. Technical report, Building and Fire Research Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1997. [20] H. Janssen. The influence of soil moisture transfer on building heat loss via

the ground. PhD thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 2002.

[21] P. Haupl, J. Grunewald, H. Fechner, and H. Stopp. Coupled heat air and moisture transfer in building structures. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 40(7):1633–1642, 1997.

REFERENCES 167

[22] Andreas Nicolai and John Grunewald. Delphin 5 manual. Institute for Building Climatology, Dresden, 2005-2006.

[23] Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics. Wufi-Bio 2.0, 2007.

[24] H. Hens. Technical synthesis report on Heat, Air and Moisture transfer in highly insulated building envelopes. Technical report, Faber Maunsell Ltd., 2002.

[25] Z. Q. Zhai and Q. Y. Chen. Solution characters of iterative coupling between energy simulation and CFD programs. Energy and Buildings, 35(5):493– 505, 2003.

[26] J. Lebrun. Exigences physiologiques et modalites physiques de la clima- tisation par source statique concentree. PhD thesis, Universite de Liege, 1970.

[27] A. C. Megri and F. Haghighat. Zonal Modeling for simulating indoor environment of buildings: Review, recent developments, and applications. Hvac&R Research, 13(6):887–905, 2007.

[28] E. Wurtz, L. Mora, and C. Inard. An equation-based simulation environ- ment to investigate fast building simulation. Building and Environment, 41(11):1571–1583, 2006.

[29] E. Wurtz, F. Haghighat, L. Mora, K. C. Mendonca, H. Zhao, C. Maalouf, and P. Bourdoukan. An integrated zonal model to predict transient indoor humidity distribution. ASHRAE Transactions 2006, Vol 112, Pt 2, 112:175– 186, 2006.

[30] Ansys Inc. Airpak, 2008.

[31] DesignBuilder Software Ltd. DesignBuilder CFD, 2008.

[32] L. Mora, A. J. Gadgil, and E. Wurtz. Comparing zonal and CFD model predictions of isothermal indoor airflows to experimental data. Indoor Air, 13(2):77–85, 2003.

[33] Fluent Inc. Fluent user’s guide Version 6.2. Fluent Inc., Lebanon, 2005. [34] H.K. Versteeg and W. Malalasekera. An introduction to Computational

Fluid Dynamics. The finite volume method. Pearson Education Limited, Essex, UK, second edition edition, 2007.

[35] D. N. Sorensen and P. V. Nielsen. Quality control of computational fluid dynamics in indoor environments. Indoor Air, 13(1):2–17, 2003.

168 REFERENCES

[36] Z. Q. Zhai, W. Zhang, Z. Zhang, and Q. Y. Chen. Evaluation of various turbulence models in predicting airflow and turbulence in enclosed environ- ments by CFD: Part 1 - Summary of prevalent turbulence models. HVAC&R Research, 13(6):853–870, 2007.

[37] Z. Zhang, Z. Q. Zhai, W. Zhang, and Q. Y. Chen. Evaluation of various turbulence models in predicting airflow and turbulence in enclosed environ- ments by CFD: Part 2 - Comparison with experimental data from literature. HVAC&R Research, 13(6):871–886, 2007.

[38] C. Inard, A. Meslem, and P. Depecker. Energy consumption and thermal comfort in dwelling-cells: A zonal-model approach. Building and Environ- ment, 33(5):279–291, 1998.

[39] M. J. Cunningham. Effective Penetration Depth and Effective Resistance in Moisture Transfer. Building and Environment, 27(3):379–386, 1992. [40] A. S. Kalagasidis, P. Weitzmann, T. R. Nielsen, R. Peuhkuri, C. E. Ha-

gentoft, and C. Rode. The International Building Physics Toolbox in Simulink. Energy and Buildings, 39(6):665–674, 2007.

[41] A. W. M. van Schijndel. Integrated Heat Air and Moisture Modeling and Simulation. PhD thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, 2008. [42] A. Janssens and M. De Paepe. Effect of moisture inertia models on the

predicted indoor humidity in a room. In Proceedings of the 26th AIVC conference, pages 287–294, Brussels, 2005.

[43] M. de Wit. Warmte en Vocht in Constructies. Technische Universiteit Eind- hoven, Eindhoven, 2002.

[44] COR. Negrao. Conflation of computational fluid dynamics and building thermal simulation. PhD thesis, University of Strathclyde, 1995.

[45] I. Beausoleil-Morrison. The adaptive coupling of heat and air flow mod- elling within dynamic whole-building simulation. PhD thesis, University of Strathclyde, 2000.

[46] Z. Q. Zhai, Q. Y. Chen, P. Haves, and J. H. Klems. On approaches to couple energy simulation and computational fluid dynamics programs. Building and Environment, 37(8-9):857–864, 2002.

[47] Patrick Ken Amissah. Indoor Air Quality - Combining air humidity with construction moisture. PhD thesis, University of Strathclyde, 2005.

REFERENCES 169

[48] A. Erriguible, P. Bernada, F. Couture, and M. A. Roques. Modeling of heat and mass transfer at the boundary between a porous medium and its surroundings. Drying Technology, 23(3):455–472, 2005.

[49] T. Defraeye. Combining Fluent with a 2D HAM model. Personal Commu- nication, 2008.

[50] P. Steskens. Combining CFD with the HAM code Delphin. Personal Com- munication, 2008.

[51] L. H. Mortensen, M. Woloszyn, C. Rode, and R. Peuhkuri. Investigation of microclimate by CFD modeling of moisture interactions between air and constructions. Journal of Building Physics, 30(4):279–315, 2007.

[52] H. Hens. IEA Annex 41. Whole Building Heat, Air, Moisture response. Tech- nical report, International Energy Agency, 2008.

[53] James Welty, Charles Wicks, Robert Wilson, and Gregory Rorrer. Funda- mentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass transfer. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 4th edition edition, 2001.

[54] H. J. Steeman, C. T’Joen, M. Van Belleghem, A. Janssens, and M. De Paepe. Evaluation of the different definitions of the convective mass transfer coefficient for water evaporation into air. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 52:3757–3766, 2009.

[55] Conrad R. Iskra and Carey J. Simonson. Convective mass transfer co- efficient for a hydrodynamically developed airflow in a short rectangular duct. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 50(11-12):2376– 2393, 2007.

[56] X. D. Chen, S. X. Q. Lin, and G. H. Chen. On the ratio of heat to mass transfer coefficient for water evaporation and its impact upon drying mod- eling. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 45(21):4369–4372, 2002.

[57] S. B. Nasrallah and P. Perre. Detailed Study of a Model of Heat and Mass- Transfer During Convective Drying of Porous-Media. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 31(5):957–967, 1988.

[58] C. Debbissi, J. Orfi, and S. Ben Nasrallah. Evaporation of water by free or mixed convection into humid air and superheated steam. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 46(24):4703–4715, 2003.

[59] W. R. Foss, C. A. Bronkhorst, and K. A. Bennett. Simultaneous heat and mass transport in paper sheets during moisture sorption from humid air. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 46(15):2875–2886, 2003.

170 REFERENCES

[60] A. Kaya, O. Aydin, and I. Dincer. Numerical modeling of heat and mass transfer during forced convection drying of rectangular moist objects. In- ternational Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 49(17-18):3094–3103, 2006. [61] W. Masmoudi and M. Prat. Heat and Mass-Transfer between a Porous- Medium and a Parallel External Flow - Application to Drying of Capil- lary Porous Materials. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 34(8):1975–1989, 1991.

[62] G. Ackermann. Warmeubergang und molekulare Stoffubertragung im gle- ichen Feld bei groben Temperatur- und Partialdruckdifferenzen. VDI- Forschungshefte, 382:1–16, 1937.

[63] H. Janssen, B. Blocken, and J. Carmeliet. Conservative modelling of the moisture and heat transfer in building components under atmospheric ex- citation. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 50(5-6):1128– 1140, 2007.

[64] Z. H. Hu and D. W. Sun. Predicting local surface heat transfer coefficients by different turbulent kappa-epsilon models to simulate heat and moisture transfer during air-blast chilling. International Journal of Refrigeration- Revue Internationale Du Froid, 24(7):702–717, 2001.

[65] A. Hukka. The effective diffusion coefficient and mass transfer coefficient of Nordic softwoods as calculated from direct drying experiments. Holz- forschung, 53(5):534–540, 1999.

[66] J.S. Lewis. Heat transfer predictions drom mass transfer measurements around a single cylinder in cross flow. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 14:325–329, 1971.

[67] J. P. Schwartze and S. Brocker. The evaporation of water into air of dif- ferent humidities and the inversion temperature phenomenon. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 43(10):1791–1800, 2000.

[68] Noureddine Boukadida and Sassi Ben Nasrallah. Mass and heat transfer during water evaporation in laminar flow inside a rectangular channel– validity of heat and mass transfer analogy. International Journal of Thermal Sciences, 40(1):67–81, 2001.

[69] W. Chuck and E. M. Sparrow. Evaporative Mass-Transfer in Turbulent Forced-Convection Duct Flows. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 30(2):215–222, 1987.