OBJETIVOS (RESULTADOS ESPERADOS NOC) 1 Nivel de ansiedad

The above findings prompted a closer examination of farming practices for a better understanding of why most farmers were not worried about drought or climate variability. Ethnographic observations revealed that small farmers have learnt to deal with the difficult environment that characterizes agriculture in the Ghanaian savannahs. Farmers draw upon their cumulative ecological knowledge to orchestrate farm-management practices that minimize the adverse effects of droughts, declining soil fertility, price fluctuations, and labour shortages. Some of the strategies are spontaneous practices, while others involve planned actions oriented towards long- term livelihood security. A number of the identified adaptation strategies are more frequently applied in Village ‘B’ than in Village ‘A’ and vice versa. The differences can be explained by the contrasting biophysical conditions and socio-economic contexts shaping livelihoods in both villages. Indeed, farmer strategies are diverse, intertwined and defy a simple classification. The following are some of the common adaptation measures that were being employed to limit the impacts of and climatic variability and economic change.

3.6.4.1 Crop Sequencing and Biological Pest Control

Farmers used complex intercropping systems to improve soil fertility, and crop rotation to take advantage of soil heterogeneity. Primary crop associations and sequencing patterns are illustrated in Figure 3.9, but this list is not exhaustive. We identified close to twenty-four crop combination and rotation patterns. It was not uncommon to identify up to seven different crop species on the same intercropped field. Farmers explained that this mixed intercropping was used to take advantage of moisture resources, to outwit pests, and to limit the spread of crop diseases.

Figure 3.9 Intercropping

Source: Authors’ Illustration based on field observations

Eighty-five percent of the interviewed farmers stressed that if the planting rains are unreasonably late (example, around mid-May and beyond), crops such as groundnuts are removed from the planting schedule because of lower resilience to moisture stress. This concern was best reflected in the following statement by one young farmer: “if the rains come in the middle of the fifth month, it’s surely going to be a short farming season, so I’ll drop groundnut.” Different crops are planted on different soils based upon fertility and moisture-retention capacities. In areas of sandy soils with lower nutrient content, fields are cultivated with millet, groundnuts,

sorghum and beans, with lower planting densities. For relay intercropping, the second set of crops, mostly legumes (e.g. groundnut, beans, etc.), are planted into standing maize, millets and sorghum before these cereals were harvested. The timing of the relay is not reliant on a calendar date, but a combination of factors, including the physiographical stage of the cereals, the moisture content in the soils, how the season unfolds, and whether the OGP began too early or too late.

Intercropping is labour-intensive; thus, farmers carefully schedule planting and weeding to coincide with household labour availability. A major problem for millet, maize and sorghum is the damage caused by a parasitic weed called Striga

(Striga hermonthica). In response to this challenge, a majority of farmers are using traditional control methods such as the application of ash (82 per cent), and cereal- legume intercropping (79 per cent).

3.6.4.2 Tied and Round Ridging

Almost all farmers cultivate on tied-ridges, whilst a smaller percentage combined both tied-ridges and round ridges (mounds). Farmers explained that compared to mounds, tied-ridges prevent gully erosion, have deep rooting volume and higher soil moisture-holding capacities. Tied-ridging quickly builds up soil organic matter when lightly hoed and crop residues incorporated. On household fields, tied-ridges are built to follow the contours of the field. Furrows between ridges are linked by cross-ties to create closed micro basins of 1 to 3 meters long. These micro basins hold up runoff, so that water has more time to infiltrate in order to increase soil water storage. Additionally, farmers explained that tied-ridging prevents grain dislodging because it increases the depth and density of plant rooting. Yield benefits, according to farmers, are greater in tie-ridging systems even during years of severe dry spells.

Approximately 83 percent of farmers indicated that in round ridging, inter-row cultivation helps not only to control weeds, but to keep the ridges in shape. Rows are often used to cultivate cowpeas. Field observations revealed that the spreading property of these leguminous crops helps to maintain a continuous plant cover,

which prevents evapotranspiration and soil compaction resulting from raindrop splash. Farmers who adopt round ridges carefully position crops to take advantage of moisture contents. For example, moisture-demanding cereals like maize are planted at the zenith of the mound, whereas millet and sorghum are planted at the tails because of their better resilience to moisture stress. Three-quarters of farmers interviewed mentioned that at the beginning of each farming season, both tied- and round ridges are re-hoed to facilitate nutrient transfer from subsoil to topsoil.

3.6.4.3 Zaï Planting Pits and Trash Lines

One major innovative strategy is the adoption of zaï planting pits. This technique is being used for soil fertility restoration and moisture conservation on lateritic soils. All farmers adopting zaï learned the technique from neighbouring villages in Burkina

Faso, where zaïs have been in existence since the early 1980s (Reij and Waters-Bayer,

2001). In this technique, small pits with diameters of 20-40 cm and depth of 10-20 cm are dug using a hoe (Figure 3.10). The excavated soils are ridged half-way around the pit to capture surface run-off, debris and sand. Manure or composted organic matter

is added to each pit. Preparing zaï pits in the dry season, according to farmers, gives

the manure enough time to decompose in order to attract soil microorganisms such as earthworms, termites and beetles. These microorganisms create biopores that loosen soils, improve aeration, drainage, and plant growth. Decomposed trash lines are put along field borders and in narrow strips across fields to attract and increase the population of earthworms, termites and beetles. According to those farmers who

were interviewed, these trash lines are a newer innovation to the original zaï practice

borrowed from Burkina Faso.

When the first rains arrive, the surface of the pit is covered with a thin layer of soil. Seeds are then planted when rains became fully established. According to farmers, the exact portfolio of cropping variety, density, and pattern is calculated based upon the nature of the first planting rains. For instance, one farmer explained that if early rains are intense and consistent within a 14-day period, zaï pits are put

into the cultivation of long-maturing, high-yielding cereals and legumes. In

commenting about the efficiency of zaï, the farmer asserted that “I’ve been

experimenting with several techniques, but I’ve never seen a method that yields as much as zaï.”

Figure 3.10 Zaï Planting Pits

Source: Authors’ Illustration based on field observations

3.6.4.4 Application of Manure and Composting

Out of the 30 farms we visited, 21 made use of no chemical fertilizers because farmers said it was expensive and destroys soils. Instead, greater attention was given to the collection and spread of animal manure as well as compound sweepings. Agricultural fields that are close to household compounds tend to receive higher manure applications. The amount and frequency of manure application is determined by cropping pattern, livestock density or type, labour availability and rainfall intensity. In some households, manure application is done by corralling livestock overnight on the fields to deposit both faeces and urine. Another strategy is for women and children to collect manure from livestock kralls and hand-spread them on croplands every 3 to 5 days. Farmers noted that whilst corralling livestock on the field saves

labour and provides quick nutrient replenishment, it nevertheless leads to soil compaction, especially in the upper 0-25 cm of the soil profile.