Objeto e instrumentos del alisamiento de resultados

To contextualise parkour and free running it was necessary to assess the extent to which the literature identifies the psychological aspects of high risk sports in general (Gratton and Jones, 2004). The journal articles that were reviewed focused on personality, meanings and motivations behind high risk behaviour.

2.3.1 Personality

Studies into personality focus on the relationship between the practise of extreme sport and certain personality traits. They suggest that extreme sport practitioners prefer novel and high risk activities (Diehm and Armatas, 2004; Franques et al., 2003; Shoham et al., 1998; Rowland, et al., 1986). Most of these studies compare scores obtained from experimental and control groups using Zuchermans Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) to validate their findings. For example; Diehm and Armatas (2004) implemented a quasi-experimental design and used the Sensation Seeking Scale to validate their findings. Rowland, et al. (1986) administered the Sensation Seeking Scale to twenty members of a University mountaineering club and twenty one control volunteers to validate their findings. Zuckerman (1979) defines sensation seeking as “the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such an experience” (Zuckerman, 1979, p. 10).

Willig (2008) conducted phenomenological research into the experience of taking part in extreme sport with eight extreme practitioners. She interviewed three male skydivers, two male mountaineers, a female mountaineer and a female and male who practiced a range of extreme sports. Willig (2008) discovered that skydivers tended to focus on the social (camaraderie) aspects of the experience whereas for the mountaineers it was flow (emotional benefit) that was more central. She suggests that the personality trait has only a modest influence on whether a person will participate in dangerous physical activities.

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Greenfeld et al. (1999) suggest that many Americans deliberately seek risk and that risk seeking may be psychological. They explain that risk-seeking is a uniquely human trait whereby a person deliberately overcomes their normal instincts to take unnecessary risks. The type of person that does this has been identified as having a Type T personality. Koerner (1997) says that thrill seeking personalities are creative individuals who crave novelty and excitement and are naturally extrovert.

Type T positive physical individuals seek physical outlets and Type T positive mental personalities seek mental thrills. Type T negatives are inclined towards drugs, promiscuity and violent crime. Koerner (1997) argues that novelty seekers possess a gene that makes them particularly responsive to dopamine which is linked to feel good sensations. He says that promiscuity, drug abuse and extreme sports keep dopamine levels high. Greenfeld et al. (1999) argue that some people can enjoy life only when they are committed to the search of thrills. They support the claim that extreme practitioners tend to be sensation seekers. They suggest that some enter high risk sports impulsively and self destructively but declare that most enter with positive motivation. Koerner (1997) points out that these personalities often have reduced levels of monoamine oxidise (MAO). MAO regulates the brains serotonin level which influences feelings of well being and anxiety. Csikszentmihalyi (1975) explains that social arrangements often fail to provide adequate challenges for teenagers so they seek alternative channels for creativity and meaning.

2.3.2 Meaning and Motivation

A few qualitative studies have been completed on the meaning and motivation for participation in extreme sports. For example, Larkin and Griffiths (2004) analysed the accounts of five bungee-jumpers on their involvement in the sport and Celsi et al. (1993) conducted an ethnographic study of skydiving. Celsi et al. (1993) identified a dynamic process of motivational change as participants progressed from novice to experienced skydiver.

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At the inter and intrapersonal levels of motivation participants seek to move from the normative motivations of thrill seeking to the efficacy motives of mastery and to the more abstract levels of identity and community (Celsi et al., 1993). In both studies the participants benefited emotionally (flow) and socially (mastery of the activity leading to increased confidence and self- esteem). The studies show that extreme sport can be understood as being a meaningful and purposeful activity.

Willig (2008) suggests that participation in extreme sport is a way of extending the range of life experiences which ultimately enriches the quality of life for a participant. In her study participants talked about how extreme activities grounded them and got rid of negative energy and that this lifted them to another level. The studies into meanings and motivations for involvement in high risk sports indicate that participation can be interpreted as being a dynamic process of motive evaluation and risk acculturation that leads to the formation of a high risk identity (Celsi et al., 1993). These studies have provided insight into why individuals take part in high risk activities when most people would consider them to be unnecessary.

2.3.3 Dangerous Sports and Flow

Academic research into dangerous sports activities suggest that they function as mood modifiers and a way of re-establishing psychological balance (e.g., Larkin and Griffiths, 2004; Franques et al., 2003). Willig (2008) argues that a participant’s desire to go up to and past their physical and psychological limits could be construed as being therapeutic as it allows the participant to transcend the self (e.g., the experience of flow). Other researchers (e.g., Le Breton, 2000; Celsi et al., 1993; Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) have also identified a state of mind and body known as flow. They believe flow has a major influence on keeping participants involved with extreme sport. Celsi et al. (1993) discovered from the data that was retrieved that flow was the ultimate aim and purpose of the practise of skydiving. For Celsi et al. (1993) it was the flow state that was found to be potentially addictive and not thrills and excitement.

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It is clear in the literature that a factor that motivates participants to take risks is the thrill and excitement that result from risk taking. Willig (2008) explains that initially participants will be concerned with developing trust in their own ability. Once this is achieved the participant will move onto the development of skill and achievement. The participant will be learning to create and manage the risk context which is ultimately very empowering (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). In the literature participants of high risks sports explain that participation restores and transports them to new heights of feeling and of existing (Willig, 2008). The quick rush of adrenaline generates a sense of internal strength that is almost ecstasy (Shoham et al., 1998). They reach a level of fullness of being that instantly justifies all their previous efforts.