Obligación y alcance del deber de prestar el servicio militar obligatorio

Total cost analysis is an important decision making approach in logistics activities. Lu (2000) states that total cost analysis considers the minimization of total system cost and the recognition of inter-relationships among important variables such as transportation, warehousing, inventory and customer service costs. Previously, ports only focused on the movement of cargo from port to port but the present trend is to consider cargo through the whole logistic chain. Lu (2000) explains that the efficiency of ports as far as cargo storage is concerned have an effect on the total cargo distribution cost of its customers. Inefficiency may therefore cause customers to keep large safety stock to ensure an even flow of production but cost can be reduced through the use of reliable and efficient transport service, a quick cargo turnaround or transit time and the

reduction of large safety stock. The major types of logistics cost includes inventory carrying cost which is made up of capital cost, storage space cost, inventory service and inventory risk cost, in-transit inventory carrying cost and warehousing cost.

One approach of port logistics total cost analysis is the static analysis which analyzes cost associated with logistics systems based on the assessment of several components at the same point in time or output level. These cost management variables affect decisions and they are so many that models developed to assist in decision processes are sometimes seen as too abstract from reality. De-Ridder (2000) explains that optimization of port project cost, is possible if initial value and cost are quantified in a relative way and als o set control systems to monitor project costs i.e. development cost, realization cost and operational cost.

4.4.2 Free trade zones

The expansion of international trade and investments has led the stage for the establishment of free ports and free trade zones (FTZ). A free trade zone is a state or private owned physically isolated area where commercial and industrial activities are granted a range of incentives i.e. a panoply of tax breaks and waivers from industrial regulations, exemptions from import and export duties and an assurance of physical security as defined by the national legislation. National customs have no jurisdiction in the FTZ except for the control of entry and exit of cargo.

Users of FTZ may be classified under direct or indirect users. Direct FTZ users may acquire equipment and develop plots of land according to their needs, while indirect users may acquire rights by signing operational contracts with existing users in the FTZ. This allows indirect users to try out the FTZ regime without large investments and make future long-term commitments. The three options of users are users who import or export cargo, users who carry out off shore activities and users who grant services.

The establishment of FTZ is aimed at attracting investments into ports, creation of employment for local economy through the establishment of various manufacturing and logistics activities i.e. re-packing, selection, labeling, and assembling and other value added services. The advantage of FTZ is that goods can be kept in bonded warehouses without time limits. Ports management must ensure that the gains of FTZ are not marred by serious environmental effects on the national natural resources and human health.

4.5 Issues of possible conflict and preventive measures

One way of preventing conflicts in an organization such as CMP is to identify possible sources of conflict and take a proactive conflict resolution action. The joint venture agreement between the ports of Malmö and Copenhagen could have a few differences to be solved in order for CMP AB to operate harmoniously. In generic terms the following differences, which could lead to possible conflict of interest, have been identified.

v Land issues

The location and usage of land in the Malmö and Copenhagen harbor areas are very big issues, in that while the municipality is trying to shift offices, houses and other attractive sites towards the beach or port area, the port authority is also trying to move these outside the port to create more space for storage areas and terminals. This puts a lot of pressure on the little land available and also plans to further reclaim land for other projects. For instance there is presently a land reclamation exercise for storage of Toyota vehicles more land will be needed for other uses such as a pre-delivery inspection base for other vehicle brands i.e. Peugeot, Nissan, Suzuki, Mazda and more land for UNICEF, SONY and other warehouse and container storage.

Secondly according to Swedish law, all projects such as land reclamation; infrastructure development and expansion need the endorsement from both city authorities and environmental agencies. This permit often delays the construction of projects since it takes 1-2 years for approval of a project. To avoid these delays long term planning such as vision 2010 of Malmö port, effective negotiation and project briefing especially on issues concerning pollution, traffic congestion and road access issues should be done far in advance between the city authority and port administration to develop more harmonious relationship. This will go a long way to quicken time taken for approval of investment projects.

v General transport policy

The researcher notices a few differences between the Swedish and Danish national transport policies. These could have a negative effect on some operations of the port and there is a need to have a common port policy due to the variation in national transport policies. For instance according to Swedish law, carriage of dangerous goods is not permitted during the day (working hours) but at night for safety reasons. In as much as this policy is good it could also cause delays in cargo distribution and therefore create congestion in future in the port if cargo traffic increases. The government preference and therefore subsidization of the rail mode makes maritime transport not competitive. It is not surprising that most cargo is distributed out of CMP via the rail mode. There is a need to in future develop other new distribution patterns and transport-links to and fro and within the port .The development of the tunnel under the city to link other destinations is very laudable. The EU policy against subsidizing some transport modes is very appropriate and there is a need to reduce or eliminate subsidies of some modes .The more the rail mode is subsidized the more cargo it taken away from vessels and there reduces cargo throughput in ports.

According to Alderton (1999) the Trans –European Transport Network (TEN) policy which obligates communities to contribute to the establishment of trans European networks in areas of transport and telecommunication infrastucture should be well handled not to promote greater advantages for some ports than others. The Common Transport Policy (CTP) addresses policy issues like improvement and modernization of ports infrastructure. This should be supported financially by the European Investment Bank (EIB) in covering among others the improvement of the port activities, land for cargo storage, sea and inland waterways, creation of a competitive playin g field and lastly the advanced research into the development of ports.

v Differences in legal systems

Until recently Danish law prevented ports to invest abroad: however, changes have allowed the formation of CMP AB. The differences in tax systems in thes e countries also vary in that while in Denmark 30% of the profit is paid as tax, in Sweden it is 28%. Application of environmental laws varies between Sweden and Denmark. There are still a few differences in operation for instance while in Sweden ports can run agency services, this is not allowed in Danish law.

v Labor issues

There is a need for uniformity in salary levels between the two ports and the application of a common labor law to meet the demands of the different labor dockworkers unions. Further there is a need for employment and training of key personnel to fit vacant positions, for example the vehicle transfer operations have no dedicated staff and often rely on staff from other departments. Language and cultural differences could also affect

the style and attitude towards work. There is lastly a need to work in close cooperation with all the labor unions through fair negotiation

v Financing of projects

Delays in approval of projects and reluctance to invest in projects could be costly for the port and all stakeholders (state, city) since port operation is a very competitive industry. Financial, social and environmental benefits of projects should be explained explicitly at the regular meetings with the authorities involved. Dialogue with responsible personnel is the key word.

In conclusion the aim of CMP becoming a major hub in the Nordic region will require good management practices in terms of making good cargo storage policies and pricing of services to attract new cargo traffic and prevent long periods of cargo dwell time, which create congestion in ports. Strategies like the adoption of incentive schemes and concessions will go a long way to attract customers to use port facilities and services. The need to have and apply management information systems in cargo storage and distribution centers and to take advantage of the benefits of centralized systems like the EDI and better still new technological improvements in the usage of various XML application systems cannot be over emphasized.

Cargo stock management and cargo storage optimization systems, such as the cross- docking concepts could be practiced in ports to prevent piling of cargo and cargo distribution delays. The economical benefits of adding value to cargo in ports and free trade zones such as re-packaging, sorting, labeling and assembling need to be developed in CMP to attract more investment and creation of jobs for the local economy. In a proactive manner all possible conflict areas such as labor and land tenure issues, transport policies, legal differences and financing of projects should be resolved promptly for CMP to totally benefit from this unique joint venture.

CHAPTER FIVE

CARGO STORAGE INDICATORS AND ANALYSIS

Port managers take various decisions daily and for them to make the right decisions they require the use of appropriate parameters, specific statistical data on current pending issues or issues relating to the future. UNCTAD manual classifies statistical data into three categories i.e. essential data, important data and useful data. Furthermore Baudelaire (1986, p.173) states that port statistics could be broken down into general activity statistics, operational or technical statistics and revenue and cost analysis. This chapter will try to list some of the key parameters and indicators needed in ports and also analyze various cargo holding capacities and storage area requirement scenarios with regards to vehicle and shed cargo storage. The indicators listed in this chapter even though not completely exhaustive are indispensable tools that could be adjusted to suit specific conditions and requirements of CMP.

5.1 Efficiency and performance indicators

Efforts to improve efficiency in storage areas is a continuous process and should be done by assessing the working methods and techniques of CMP.The concept of time is one of the important factors which is related to most port indicators. According to Oxley (1990, pp.154-167) efficiency, in the context of warehousing, is giving the customer the service required in the most effective way by considering speed of delivery, consistency of delivery, completeness and quality of order, accurate and timely information about goods and services provided. In addition there is a need for good communication with supplier, flexible and quick reaction time and an ideal working environment through

minimum handling and movement of cargo, minimum inventory levels, and the effective use of all resources i.e. space, equipment and people.

5.1.1 Shed cargo performance indicators

Francou (2002) states that several studies show that about two -thirds of maritime costs happen in ports; quay operations, handling and storage operations. A lot of responsibility is therefore on port managers to plan and forecast the smooth and free flow of operations and take informed decisions based on reliable management tools or performance indicators. These management tools can be used to analyze for example storage performances in ports and try to improve efficiency by comparing present and previous performances. Below are a few useful examples of port storage indicators, quoted from UNCTAD (1985) Port development, TD/BC.4/175/Rev.1 pp. 220-222.

v Average dwell time (days)

(

₍

₎

)

stored Tonnage time dwell Tonnage× Σ Σ =

Dwell time is the total time a particular cargo stays in a port. This is an important determinate of the storage space requirements. The average here is not arithmetic average but a weighted average. It must be noted that even though the formula is simple it is very difficult for ports to get information on dwell time in ports.

v

Effective Storagesurface needed =

days R dwelltime tor Stowagefac Tonnage 365 × × ×

The Stowage factor3 of a cargo is the surface area occupied by one ton of that cargo. (Reference commodity characteristic table on the Appendix attached)

Capacity depends a lot on the type of cargo and the dwell time of the cargo in the storage area. Further more, to improve capacity it is always better to reduce the dwell time or transit time of cargo by either adopting effective cargo delivery / clearing schemes or application of a punitive tariff policy.

v Holding Capacity = factor Stacking height stacking Average area Storage Usable ×

Cargo throughput is determined by the holding capacity and transit time. Cargo holding capacity can be increased if ports first consider the effective usage of vertical heights before considering extensions in land need for cargo storage or expensive land reclamation. v Stacking factor =

(

)

In storage of general cargo in a shed, allowance must be made for un-used space due to the nature of packaging, boxes, drums, pallets or bags.

v Storage Occupancy (%) = capacity Holding storage in Tonnage × 100

Storage occupancy is an approximated or estimated measure because holding capacity is based on average values.

v Yearly capacity in tons = time dwell factor Stowage days area Surface × × 365

This shows that the higher the dwell time of cargo in port, the lower the storage capacity of the port for more cargo.

v Storage Equipment Utilization =

hours machine total Possible hours used machine corded Re

v Storage Equipment Availability =

hours machine total Possible hours machine Available

Two additional indicators needed are cargo occupancy and in-transit time. Occupancy is expressed in the quantity of cargo stored at a particular time as a percentage of holding capacity. This however is an approximated figure because the holding capacity itself is based on average values. The estimation of on how full a storage area has been must be done over a particular period and according to Horck (2002) several studies have shown that if storage is more than 60% over one year the demand must have exceeded storage capacity on most occasions. There is the temptation by management at this stage to invest in new storage facilities but it is recommended to rather improve utilization of existing facilities by the consistent application of these performance indicators to reduce cargo in-transit time.

In cases where the shed storage is made up of mixed cargo, it is important to calculate the average of the stacking heights of various cargoes making the mix. Because stacking heights is a function of cargo type and packaging type, reserve storage capacity must be provided over the average holding capacity to make for variation in cargo traffic. After examining the relationship between a typical cargo transit time and port storage capacity,

it is found that the longer cargo is kept in a storage area the less the storage capacity of that storage area as seen in figure15.

Relationship between cargo transit time and storage capacity

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Transit time (days)

Capacity (thosand tons)

Figure 15 : Source: Adapted from UNCTAD seminar on systematic methods of improving throughput.(Steps to effective shed management, UN, New York 1987)

It is therefore expedient to shorten as much as possible the cargo transit time in ports to have maximum storage capacity.