Su obra y estilo

87 suitable for remediation petroleum oil sludge-contaminated dry land using in-situ post-composting.

Improvement of plant growth in petroleum oil sludge-contaminated land after in-situ post-composting was suggested by detoxification of hydrocarbon decomposition products by rhizosphere microbial isolates. Rhizosphere microbial isolates in the functional microbial inoculant also suggested capable to N-fixation and dissolved phosphate for the growth of grass plants, even though the height of elephant grass plant did not show significant differences, but other parameters such as the weight of the biomass, N, and P uptake showed a significant increase. The weight of dried biomass increased from 47 to 101g, N uptake increased from 415 to 914mg/plant and P uptake increased from 77 to 178 mg/plant. These results suggested that the microbial consortia containing inoculant bacteria isolates (KDB2, KLB5, BM5, KLBN1) and fungal isolates (KLF6, RK1) suitable for plant growth of elephant grass in petroleum oil sludge-contaminated land after in-situ post-composting.

All evaluations showed that consortia of microbial inoculant containing functional hydrocarbon degrading microbial isolates (BMC2, BMC4, BMC6, FMC2, FMC6) from hydrocarbon-contaminated soil has the potential to reduce TPH (total petroleum hydrocarbons), whereas consortia of microbial inoculant containing functional of plant growth enhancers which contain bacterial isolates KDB2, KLB5, BM5, KLBN1 and fungal isolates (KLF6, RK1) have the potential to increase the growth of corn crop (Zea mays L. varieties P21) on dry land with very low available of P (P<4 ppm).

8.3.3. Improvement of natural polymer properties by radiation grafting of adsorbent

88

8.3.3.2. Metal Ion Adsorption by BKP-g-N-(Hydroxymethyl) Acrylamide

Polysaccharide of banana peel powder (BKP) was copolymerized with N-(hydroxymethyl) acrylamide by using gamma irradiation for improving the physicochemical properties of BKP as adsorbent. Mixed banana peel powder-N-(hydroxymetil) acrylamide was irradiated at doses of 4 kGy, 8 kGy, 16 kGy, and 32 kGy. The results showed an increase in Cu (II) adsorption capacity of adsorbent from irradiated copolymer, which gradually increase by increasing the irradiation dose. While the adsorption of Cr (VI) did not change significantly before and after irradiation at dose of 4 kGy, even gradually decrease by increasing the irradiation dose. An increase in physical strength was indicated by a decrease of NHMA damage. BKP-NHMA adsorbent can be recycled and can be reused with a decrease of 48% adsorption ability.

8.3.3.3. Metal Adsorption by Chitosan-g-Acrylamide

The chitosan sample was prepared from chitin (extracted from shrimp shell) as described in previous work ^[14]. The chitosan-acrylamide solution with the concentration of chitosan 1, 2, and 3% (w/v) solutions were prepared by dissolved 1, 2 and 3 g chitosan in 1.5 g acetic acid glacial respectively, then followed by adding 20 mL of distilled water. Furthermore, 7.5 g acrylamide was added to the each solution and distilled water was poured to get 100 mL solution. The mixed solutions were packed in 5×5 cm plastic bag, sealed and subjected to gamma irradiation with dose of 10 to 40 kGy. The irradiated sample then cut into pieces and dried at 40 °C for further examination. The physicochemical properties namely gel fraction and the degree of swelling were determined by gravimetric method. The results showed that chitosan-co-acrylamide hydrogel which irradiated with gamma rays up to 15 kGy was an effective adsorbent for the removal of various metal ions (Cu²⁺, Cr⁶⁺, Ni²⁺, Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, Zn²⁺) from aqueous solutions. The pH experiment revealed that adsorbent was efficient for the uptake of metal ions at pH over 7. The percentage of metal ions uptake was found to be a function of adsorbent dose and time at a given initial solute concentration. It is increased with time and initial concentration but decreased with adsorbent dose. The order of heavy metal ions uptake on Chi-co-PAAm hydrogel was Zn²⁺ > Cr²⁺ > Pb²⁺ > Cu²⁺ >Co²⁺ > Ni²⁺. Experimental results are in good agreement with Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherm model and have shown a good fitting to the experimental data.

8.3.3.4. Textile Dyestuff Adsorption by Polysaccharide-g-Acrylic Acid

The aim of this study to determine the ability of polysaccharide of banana peel as an adsorbent of textile dyes (maxilon yellow) before and after the grafting process. The grafting copolymerization process was done by using acrylic acid as monomer, and then irradiated by gamma rays as initiator. Parameters observed were adsorption ability of dye, soaking time with KOH, acrylic acid concentration, irradiation dose and resistance to acids. The results showed the optimum absorption obtained at the time of KOH immersion for 3 hours, the concentration of acrylic acid by 20% and the irradiation dose of 30 kGy. Adsorption percentage of polysaccharide to maxilon yellow after grafting increased by 18.5% compared to before grafting. Resistance to the acid test increased significantly. The results of this study are expected to overcome the problems of waste dyes in the textile industry.

89 8.3.3.5. Radiation-Induced Degradation of Chitosan

Oligo chitosan can be produced from marine product waste by combination chemical and radiation processes. Firstly, marine product waste from Crustaceae, such as shrimp and crab shells, etc. was deprotinated and demineralized by using aqueous solution of NaOH and HCl, successively. The chitin obtained was then de-acetylated by using NaOH-H2O to get chitosan.

Subsequently, the oligo chitosan could be prepared by irradiation of chitosan by using gamma ray with a dose of 75 to 100 kGy. The field test on the effect of oligo chitosan in 0.5% acetic acid solution as plant growth promoters was examined toward soybean, chili, and other plants.

The results showed that oligo chitosan could significantly increase total P-uptake of soybean plant. Combination of oligo chitosan with bio-fertilizer showed more P-uptake of soybean plant. Furthermore, the application of oligo chitosan on chili plants showed the significant results. It was clarified that oligo chitosan with the concentration treatment of 50-100 ppm could increase harvest times from normally 12 times to 20-25 times. Moreover, oligo chitosan also could destroy Gemini virus which attacked to chili plant.

CONCLUSION 8.4.

The use of ionizing radiation to degrade organic pollutants in wastewater directly proved to be very powerful, but the application in the field is still required the big effort to convince the decision makers and end users.

Radiation-induced grafting of vinyl monomer onto starch can produce biodegradable materials which can be used for producing a variety a variety of environmentally friendly plastic products. Furthermore, the use of ionizing radiation to modify natural polymers to produce materials which have better physicochemical properties can be applied for absorbing heavy metals and other pollutants such as textile dyes, pesticides, and others, as a more promising clean/green technology, and can be more easily public-accepted.

The use of ionizing radiation for sterilization of carrier for microbial inoculant and the use of low-dose irradiation on microbes to generate functional microbial inoculants can be applied for remediation of degraded lands.

Moreover, the use of oligo chitosan for plant growth promoter, plant elicitor, and anti-virus, especially for chili plant on a pilot scale proved to give a significant impact, and efforts are being made to commercialization.

90

REFERENCES TO CHAPTER 8

[8.1] WINARNO, H., HARANTUNG, E.K., “Irradiation effect on insecticides as a pollutant model in aqueous solution”, Sci. J. Appl. Isot. Rad. 3 (2) (2007) 25-40.

[8.2] WINARNO, E.K., GETOFF, N., “Photo-induced decomposition of 2-chloroaniline in aqueous solution”, Z. Naturforsch. 57(c) (2002) 512-515.

[8.3] WINARNO, E.K., GETOFF, N., “Comparative studies on the degradation of aqueous 2-chloroaniline by O3 as well as UV-light and gamma rays in the presence of ozone”, Radiat. Phys. Chem., 65 (2002) 387-395.

[8.4] RAVI, S., BRESHEARS, D.D., HUXMAN, T.E., D’ODORICO, P., “Land degradation in drylands: Interactions among hydrologic-aeolian erosion and vegetation dynamics”, Geomorphology. 116 (2010) 236-245.

[8.5] DJAENUDIN, D., “The development of research on land resources and contribution to overcome the needs of agricultural land in Indonesia”, Indonesian J. Agric. Res. Develop.

27(4): 137-145 (2008). (in Indonesian).

[8.6] LAL, R., “Soil management in the developing countries”, Soil Science. 165(1):57-72 (2000).

[8.7] JYOTHI K, BABU, K. S., CLARA K. N., KASHYAP, A., “Identification and isolation of hydrocarbon degrading bacteria by molecular characterization”, Helix. 2 (2012) 105-111.

[8.8] MISHRA, S., JYOT, J., KUHAD, R.C., LAL, B., “Evaluation of inoculum addition to stimulate in situ bioremediation of oily-sludge-contaminated soil”, Appl. Environ.

Microbiol. 67(4) (2001) 1675-1681.

[8.9] ANONYMOUS, Welcome to Green Plastic, www.greenplastics.com (2010).

[8.10] ISKANDAR, S, “Graft copolymerization of methyl methacrylate monomer onto starch and natural rubber latex”, Atom Indonesia. 37(1) (2011) 24-28.

[8.11] PUSPITASARI, T., OKTAVIANI, PANGERTENI,D.S,, NURFILAH, E., DARWIS, D., Study of metal ions removal from aqueous solution by using radiation crosslinked chitosan-co-poly(acrylamide)-based adsorbent”, Polymer-Plastic of Technology and Engineering (PPTE). 2014. (Accepted for publication).

[8.12] GYANANATH, G., BALHAL, D.K., “Removal of Lead (II) from aqueous solutions by adsorption onto chitosan beads cellulose”, Chem. Technol. 46(1-2) (2012) 121-124.

[8.13] GOTOH, T. MATSUSHIMA, K., KIKUCHI, K.I., “Preparation of alginate–chitosan hybrid gel beads and adsorption of divalent metal ions”, Chemosphere. 55(1) (2004) 135-140.

[8.14] KUMAR, P.S., KIRTHIKA, K., “Equilibrium and kinetic study of adsorption of nickel from aqueous solution onto bael tree leaf powder”, J. Eng. Sci. Tech. 4(4) (2009) 351-363.

[8.15] SUHARTINI, M., “Absorption of textile dyes using polysaccharide-g-acrylic acid”, Indonesian Journal of Materials Science. 2014. (in Indonesian, Accepted for publication).

[8.16] BAILEY, S.E., OLIN, T.J., BRICKA, R.M., ADRIAN, D.D., “A review of potentially low-cost sorbents for heavy metals”. Water Res. 33(11) (1999) 2469-2479.

[8.17] ROSIAK, J.M., ULANSKI, P., PAJEWSKI, L.A., YOSHII F., MAKUUCHI, K., “Radiation formation of hydrogels for biomedical purposes: Some remarks and comments”. Radiat.

Phys. Chem. 46(2), (1995) 161-168.

91 [8.18] KARADAĞ, E., SARAYDIN, D., GÜVEN. O., “Radiation induced superabsorbent

hydrogels. Acrylamide/itaconic acid copolymers”. Macromol. Mater. Eng. 286(1) (2001) 34-42.

[8.19] GETOFF, N.,”A comparative view of radiation, photo- and photocatalytically-induced oxidation of water pollutants (Proc. of Consultants meetings on Sewage Sludge and Wastewater for Use in Agriculture, Vienna, December 1994), IAEA (1994) 47-64.

[8.20] GETOFF, N., Radiation-induced degradation of water pollutants: State of the art, Radiat.

Phys. Chem. 47(4) (1996) 581-583.

[8.21] GETOFF, N., Radiation chemistry and environment, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 54(4) (1999) 377-384.

[8.22] WINARNO, H., BAGYO, A.N.M., LINDU, W.A., and WINARNO, E.K., Radiation-induced degradation of pirimiphos methyl in aerated solution, Int’l J. Environmentally Conscious Design & Manufacturing, 12(4) (2004) 1-7.

[8.23] BOWEN, G.D., ROVIRA, A.D., “The rhizosphere and its management to improve plant growth”, Adv. Agron. 66 (1999) 1-102.

[8.24] BASHAN, Y., de-BASHAN, L.E., “Bacteria: Plant Growth-Promoting”, Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environmental”. 1 (2005) 103-115.

[8.25] YARDIN, M.R., KENNEDY, I.R., THIES, J.E.,”Development of high quality of carrier materials for field delivery of key microorganisms used as bio-fertilizer and biopestisides”, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 57 (2000) 565-568.

[8.26] FERREIRA, E.M., CASTRO, I.V., “Residues of the cork industry as carrier for the production of legume inoculants”, Silva Lusitana. 13(2) (2005) 159-167.

[8.27] DAZA, A., SANTAMARIA, C., RODRIGUEZ-NAVARRO, D.N., CAMACHO, M., ORIVE, R., F. TEMPRANO, 2000, “Perlite as a carrier for bacterial inoculants”, Soil Biol. Biochem. 32 (2000) 567-572.

[8.28] MCNAMARA, N.P., BLACK, H.I.J., BERESFORD, N.A., PAREKH, N.R,. “Effect of acute gamma irradiation on chemical, physical and biological properties of soils”, Applied Soil Ecology 24(2) (2003) 117-132.

[8.29] CHAKRAVARTY, B., SEN, S., “Enhancement of regeneration potential and variability by gamma-irradiation in cultured cells of Scillaindica”, Biol. Plant. 44 (2001) 189–193.

[8.30] AFIFY, A.E.M.R., ABO-EL-SEOUD, M., IBRAHIM, G.M., HELAL, I.M.M., KASSEM, B.W., “Exposing of Trichoderma spp. to gamma radiation for stimulating its pesticide biodegradation activity”, J. Rad. Res. Appl. Sci. 5(2) (2012) 440-454.

92 FIG. 9.1. Three major reactions of crosslinking, degradation, and graft polymerization in radiation processing of polymers and induced modifications.

9. RADIATION PROCESSING OF POLYMERS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL