Obtención de cromosomas metafásicos

The meaning of translation within this study is used to refer to the process of changing written or spoken word(s) from one language to another (Jones & Boyle, 2011). In other words, translation involves the allocation of words or ideas to either spoken or written words using another language, with the aim of maintaining the meaning of the original text or achieving maximum equivalence of meaning (Jones & Boyle, 2011). Yinha (2011) made an additional dimension to the definition of translation, stating that it is not just an exchange of different written or spoken words, but a process of communication between two or more languages, whereby there is interaction across languages, cultures and social communication.

Equivalence in this study refers to the process of making translated data as close as possible to participants’ narrated experiences (Miao, 2006; Regmi, 2010; Panou, 2013). Equivalence can also be used as a way of ensuring validity of findings in qualitative studies (Chang et al., 1999). This process is also seen as central to translation, the objective of which is to ensure that the originality of participants’ views is adhered to throughout the study (Miao, 2006; Yinha, 2011; Panou, 2013). However, the majority of translators use this term out of habit, rather than because there is need to do so (Farrokh, 2011). Equivalence can be divided into two types:

formal and dynamic, enhancing purposeful use of the term (Farrokh, 2011). The purpose of formal equivalence is to focus on the content and form of the document. Dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect: the ability to ensure that the translated document is as close as possible to the original text (Miao, 2006; Panou, 2013). Following the dynamics of effective equivalence, variations have been made to the description of this concept (Baker, 1992). Equivalence can be categorized into; equivalence of words, phrases, text or grammar (Baker, 1992). For example, the word ‘life’ can have different interpretations, even though it is an English word. In one context it could be interpreted as the ‘soul,’ while in another it could be interpreted as ‘being alive’. All in all, the equivalence effect in translation is only a desire, and not the purpose of translation (Panou, 2013). This implies that during any process of translation, alteration or shifting from the original text is inevitable.

Shifting refers to changes in meaning that come about or those that may occur during the translation process (Farrokh, 2011; Panou, 2013). According to Farrokh (2011), shifts were originally defined by Catford as “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the source language to the target language” (p.75). While this process is inevitable during translation, if not well addressed, shifts can occur, completely altering the meaning of the original information, and as such may have an adverse outcome on the authenticity of the study. This means that there could be a major discrepancy between the translated document and the original (Miao, 2006).

However, Brislin (1970) devised a strategy to enhance equivalence during translation. Although it was not feasible to implement most of these steps in my study, perhaps clearly enumerating them below will benefit other researchers conducting research in more than one

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chapter 7 of this thesis. Brislin’s strategies of promoting authenticity in multiple language research:

1. A bilingual translator translates the schedule or tool for collecting data, from the original language (English) to the native/target language (siSwati), known as forward translation.

2. The recorded interviews are transcribed verbatim, before being translated into the target language (English).

3. A bilingual translator reads the transcribed script, and re-reads to familiarise him or herself with the original script, making notes where necessary. S/he then translates the data into the target language (English), in this instance from siSwati to English. This is also referred to as forward translation.

4. Without any prior knowledge, a second translator undertakes backward translation; whereby the translated text (English) is translated back into the original language (siSwati).

5. Both translators sit down to compare original text and the translated version. Variations in meaning of words are noted, such as: cultural differences and non existence of equivalent words in both languages (target and original).

6. Translators reach a consensus in terms of the best possible translation.

7. Translators spend some time reading and re-reading both the original text and translated document, comparing the translated text with the original, in order to ensure maximum equivalence. This leads to the production of a final translated document.

8. Without maintaining contact or communication, two analysts would analyse both the script written in the target language and the other in the original one.

For some, reaching a state of equivalence in translation in qualitative studies is impossible and considered a challenge to attain, even within the same language (Miao, 2006; Panou, 2013). A state of equivalence effect is impossible to attain, even between analogous languages, because the reader’s translation of a script is more subjective than objective (Miao, 2006).Within this study the incorporation of Brislin’s strategy to enhance equivalence within the process of translation was hindered by a number of factors, amongst which was the lack of a qualified siSwati bilingual translator. As a result I did the forward translation, but omitted the backward translation step. The majority of participants were not eloquent English speakers, making it impossible to involve them in back translation.