12. ASPECTOS DEL MERCADO
12.2. LA OFERTA
To our knowledge, this is the first study to develop conceptual models to examine, in depth, factors that may explain or exacerbate the relationship between mild prematurity and poor neonatal and developmental outcomes. By doing so, this thesis contributes to the literature by (a) providing a coherent framework with which to explain the
relationships among variables thought to affect outcomes of late preterm and early term birth and (b) forming hypotheses around the existence of high risk groups in the late preterm and early term population.
References
1. Raju TNK. The problem of late-preterm (near-term) births: A workshop summary.
Pediatr Res. 2006;60:775-6.
2. Raju TNK, Higgins RD, Stark AR, Leveno KJ. Optimizing care and outcomes for
late-preterm (near-term) infants: A summary of the workshop sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Pediatrics.
2006;118:1207-14.
3. Ruth CA, Roos N, Hildes-Ripstein E, Brownell M. The influence of gestational age
and socioeconomic status on neonatal outcomes in late preterm and early term gestation: A population-based study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2012;12(62).
4. Cheng YW, Kaimal AJ, Bruckner TA, Hallaron DR, Caughey AB. Perinatal
morbidity associated with late preterm deliveries compared with deliveries between 37 and 40 weeks of gestation. BJOG. 2011;118:1446-54.
5. Melamed N, Klinger G, Tenebaum-Gavish K, Herscovici T, Linder N, Hod M, et
al. Short-term neonatal outcome in low-risk, spontaneous, singleton, late preterm deliveries. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;114(2):253-60.
6. Santos IS, Matijasevich A, Silveira MF, Sclowitz IKT, Barros AJD, Victora CG, et
al. Associated factors and consequences of late preterm births: Results from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort. Pediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2008;22(350):350-9.
7. Kitsommart R, Janes M, Mahajan V, Rahman A, Seidlitz W, Wilson J, et al.
Outcomes of late-preterm infants: A retrospective, single-centre, Canadian study. Clin Pediatr. 2009;48(8):844-50.
8. McIntire DD, Leveno KL. Neonatal mortality and morbidity rates in late preterm
births compared with births at term. Obstet Gynecol. 2008;111(1):35-41.
9. Lubow JM, How HY, Habli M, Maxwell R, Sibai BM. Indications for delivery and
short-term neonatal outcomes in late preterm as compared to term births. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009;200(5):e30-3.
10. Celik IH, Demirel G, Canpolat FE, Dilmen U. A common problem for neonatal
intensive care units: Late preterm infants, a prospective study with term controls in a large perinatal centre. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2013;26(5):459-62.
11. Tsai ML, Lien R, Chiang MC, Hsu JF, Fu RH, Chu SM, et al. Prevalence and
morbidity of late preterm infants: Current status in a medical center of Northern Taiwan. Pediatr Neonatol. 2012;53(3):171-7.
12. Bird TM, Bronstein JM, Hall RW, Lowery CL, Nugent R, Mays GP. Late preterm infants: Birth outcomes and health care utilization in the first year. Pediatrics. 2010;126:e311-9.
13. Leone A, Ersfeld P, Adams M, Meyer Schiffer P, Bucher HU, Arlettaz R. Neonatal
morbidity in singleton late preterm infants compared with full-term infants. Acta Paediatr. 2012;101:e6-10.
14. Finster M, Wood M. The Apgar score has survived the test of time. Anesthesiol.
2005;102(4):855-7.
15. Gouyon JB, Vintejoux A, Sagot P, Burguet A, Quantin C, Ferdynus C, et al.
Neonatal outcomes associated with singleton birth at 34-41 weeks of gestation. Int J Epidemiol. 2010;39:769-76.
16. Shapiro-Mendoza CK, Tomashek KM, Kotelchuck M, Barfield W, Nannini A,
Weiss J, et al. Effect of late-preterm birth and maternal medical conditions on newborn morbidity risk. Pediatrics. 2008;12:e223-32.
17. Bastek JA, Sammel MD, Pare E, Srinivas SK, Posencheg MA, Elovitz MA.
Adverse neonatal outcomes: Examining the risks between preterm, late preterm, and term infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008;199(4):e1-8.
18. Jaiswal A, Murki S, Gaddam P, Reddy A. Early neonatal morbidities in late
preterm infants. Indian Pediatrics. 2010;20:1-5.
19. Femitha P, Bhat V. Early neonatal outcome in late preterms. Indian J Pediatr.
2011;79(8):1019-24.
20. The Consortium on Safe Labor. Respiratory morbidity in late preterm births. J Am
Med Assoc. 2010;304(4):419-25.
21. Yoder BA, Gordon MC, Barth WH. Late-preterm birth: Does the changing
obstetric paradigm alter the epidemiology of respiratory complications? Obstet Gynecol. 2008;111:814-22.
22. de Almeida MFB, Guinsburg R, da Costa JO, Achieta LM, Freire LMS, Campos
Junior D. Resuscitative procedures at birth in late preterm infants. J Perinat. 2007;27:761-5.
23. Kalyoncu O, Aygun C, Cetinoglu E, Kucukoduk S. Neonatal morbidity and
mortality of late-preterm babies. J Matern-Fetal Neonat Med. 2010;23(7):607-12.
24. Reddy UM, Ko CW, Raju TNK, Willinger M. Delivery indications at late-preterm
gestations and infant mortality rates in the United States. Pediatrics. 2009;124:234- 40.
25. Young PC, Glasgow TS, Li X, Guest-Warnick G, Stoddard G. Mortality of late- preterm (near-term) newborns in Utah. Pediatrics. 2007;119:e659-65.
26. Kramer MS, Demissie K, Yang H, Platt RW, Sauve R, Liston R, et al. The
contribution of mild and moderate preterm birth to infant mortality. JAMA. 2000;284(7):843-9.
27. Davidoff MJ, Dias T, Damus K, Russell R, Bettegowda VR, Dolan S, et al.
Changes in the gestational age distribution among U.S. singleton births: Impact on rates of late preterm birth, 1992 to 2002. Semin Perinatol. 2006;30:8-15.
28. Tita ATN, Landon MB, Spong CY, Lai Y, Leveno KJ, Varner MW, et al. Timing
of elective repeat cesarean delivery at term and neonatal outcomes. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(2):111-20.
29. Tracy SK, Tracy MB, Sullivan E. Admission of term infants to neonatal intensive
care: A population-based study. Birth. 2007;34(4):301-7.
30. Dietz PM, Rizzo JH, England LJ, Callaghan WM, Vesco KK, Bruce FC, et al.
Early term delivery and health care utilization in the first year of life. J Pediatr. 2012;161(2):234-9.
31. Cheng YW, Nicholson JM, Nakagawa S, Bruckner TA, Washington AE, Caughey
AB. Perinatal outcomes in low-risk term pregnancies: Do they differ by week of gestation? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008;199(370):e1-7.
32. Zhang X, Kramer MS. Variations in mortality and morbidity by gestational age
among infants born at term. J Pediatr. 2009;154(3):358-62.
33. Heimstad R, Romundstad PR, Eik-Nes SH, Salvesen KA. Outcomes of pregnancy
beyond 37 weeks of gestation. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;108(3):500-8.
34. Reddy UM, Bettegowda VR, Dias T, Yamada-Kushnir T, Ko CW, Willinger M.
Term pregnancy: A period of heterogeneous risk for infant mortality. Obstet Gynecol. 2011;117(6):1279-87.
35. Raju TNK. Developmental physiology of late and moderate prematurity. Semin
Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;17(3):126-31.
36. Mally PV, Bailey S, Hendricks-Munoz KD. Clinical issues in the management of
late preterm infants. Curr Probl Pediatr Health Care. 2010;40:218-33.
37. Colin AA, McEvoy C, Castile RG. Respiratory morbidity and lung function in
preterm infants of 32 to 36 weeks' gestational age. Pediatrics. 2010;126(1):1-14.
38. Engle WA, Tomashek KM, Wallman C, the Committee on Fetus and Newborn.
39. Lyon AJ. Prematurity. In: Keeling JW, Khong TY, editors. Fetal and neonatal pathology. Fourth ed. London: Springer-Verlag London Limited; 2007.
40. Caughey AB, Washington AE, Laros RK. Neonatal complications of term
pregnancy: Rates by gestational age increase in a continuous, not threshold, fashion. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;192:185-90.
41. Wilcox AJ, Weinberg CR, Basso O. On the pitfalls of adjusting for gestational age
at birth. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;174(9):1062-8.
42. Basso O, Wilcox A. Mortality risk among preterm babies: Immaturity versus
underlying pathology. Epidemiology. 2010;21(4):521-7.
43. Basso O, Wilcox AJ. Might rare factors account for most of the mortality of
preterm babies? Epidemiology. 2011;22(3):320-7.
44. Chen A, Feresu SA, Barsoom MJ. Heterogeneity of preterm birth subtypes in
relation to neonatal death. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;114(3):516-22.
45. Lee J, Seong HS, Jae B, Kwan J, Romero R, Yoon BH. Evidence to support that
spontaneous preterm labour is adaptive in nature: Neonatal RDS is more common in "indicated" than in "spontaneous" preterm birth. J Perinat Med. 2009;37(1):53-8.
46. Moutquin J. Classification and heterogeneity of preterm birth. BJOG.
2003;110(S20):30-3.
47. Savitz DA, Dole N, Herring AH, Kaczor D, Murphy J, Siega-Riz AM, et al. Should
spontaneous and medically indicated preterm births be separated for studying aetiology. Paediatr Perinat Ep. 2005;19:97-105.
48. Klebanoff MA, Shiono PH. Top down, bottom up, and inside out: Reflections on
preterm birth. Paediatr Perinatol Ep. 1995;9:125-9.
49. Henderson J, McWilliam OA, Newnham JP, Pennell CE. Preterm birth aetiology
2004-2008. Maternal factors associated with three phenotypes: Spontaneous preterm labour, preterm pre-labour rupture of the membranes and medically indicated preterm birth. J Matern-Fetal Neonat Med. 2012;25(6):642-7.
50. Köck K, Köck F, Klein K, Bancher-Todesca D, Helmer H. Diabetes mellitus and
the risk of preterm birth with regard to the risk of spontaneous preterm birth. Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine. 2010;23(9):1004-8.
51. Ananth CV, Vintzileos AM. Epidemiology of preterm birth and its clinical
subtypes. J Matern-Fetal Neonat Med. 2006;19(12):773-82.
52. Berkowitz GS, Blackmore-Prince C, Lapinski RH, Savitz DA. Risk factors for
53. Barros FC, Velez MDP. Temporal trends of preterm birth subtypes and neonatal outcomes. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;107(5):1035-41.
54. Villar J, Abalos E, Carroli G, Giorano D, Wojdyla D, Piaggio G, et al.
Heterogeneity of perinatal outcomes in the preterm delivery syndrome. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;104(1):78-87.
55. Lockwood CJ, Kuczynski E. Markers of risk for preterm delivery. J Perinat Med.
1999;27:5-20.
56. Menon R. Spontaneous preterm birth, a clinical dilemma: Etiologic,
pathophysiologic and genetic heterogeneities and racial disparity. Acta Obstet Gynecol. 2008;87:590-600.
57. Simmons LE, Rubens CE, Darmstadt GL, Gravett MG. Preventing preterm birth
and neonatal mortality: Exploring the epidemiology, causes, and interventions. Semin Perinatol. 2010;34:408-15.
58. Gravett MG, Rubens CE, Nunes TM, the GAPPS Review Group. Global report on
preterm birth and stillbirth. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2010;10(S1):1-16.
59. Romero R, Espinoza J, Kusanovic JP, Gotsch F, Hassan S, Erez O, et al. The
preterm parturition syndrome. BJOG. 2006;113(S3):17-42.
60. Kramer MS, Papageorghiou AT, Culhane J, Bhutta ZA, Goldenberg RL, Gravett
MG, et al. Challenges in defining and classifying the preterm birth syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;206(2):108-12.
61. Gotsch F, Romero R, Erez O, Vaisbuch E, Kusanovic JP, Mazaki-Tovi S, et al. The
preterm parturition syndrome and its implications for understanding the biology, risk assessment, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of preterm birth. J Matern- Fetal Neonat Med. 2009;22(S2):5-23.
62. Goldenberg RL, Gravett MG, Iams J, Papageorghiou AT, Waller SA, Kramer M, et
al. The preterm birth syndrome: Issues to consider in creating a classification system. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;206(2):113-8.
63. Villar J, Papageorghiou AT, Knight HE, Gravett MG, Iams J, Waller SA, et al. The
preterm birth syndrome: A prototype phenotypic classification. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;206(2):119-23.
64. Savitz DA. Invited commentary: Disaggregating preterm birth to determine
etiology. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168:990-2.
65. Lee J, Kim J, Park J, Park C, Park J, Jun J, et al. Chronic chorioamnionitis is the
66. Goldenberg RL, Culhane JF, Iams JD, Romero R. Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth. Lancet. 2008;371:75-84.
67. Cornette L. Fetal and neonatal inflammatory response and adverse outcome. Semin
Fetal Neonatal Med. 2004;9:459-70.
68. Dammann O, Leviton A. Maternal intrauterine infection, cytokines, and brain
damage in the preterm newborn. Pediatric Res. 1997;42(1):1-8.
69. Dammann O, Leviton A, Gappa M, Dammann CEL. Lung and brain damage in
preterm newborns, and their association with gestational age, prematurity
subgroup, infection/inflammation and long term outcome. BJOG. 2005;112(S1):4- 9.
70. Rees S, Harding R, Walker D. An adverse intrauterine environment: Implications
for injury and altered development of the brain. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2008;26:3-11.
71. Rees S, Harding R, Walker D. The biological basis of injury and neuroprotection in
the fetal and neonatal brain. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2011;29(6):551-63.
72. Sutton L, Sayer GP, Bajuk B, Richardson V, Berry G, Henderson-Smart DJ. Do
very sick neonates born at term have antenatal risks? Infants ventilated primarily for lung disease. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2001;80:917-25.
73. Aziz K, Chadwick M, Baker M, Andrews W. Ante- and intra-partum factors that
predict increased need for neonatal resuscitation. Resuscitation. 2008;79:444-52.
74. Alexander JM, McIntire DM, Leveno KJ. Chorioamnionitis and the prognosis for
term infants. Obstet Gynecol. 1999;94:274-8.
75. Baskett TF, Allen VM, O'Connell CM, Allen AC. Predictors of respiratory
depression at birth in the term infant. BJOG. 2006;113:769-74.
76. Soraisham AS, Singhal N, McMillan DD, Sauve RS, the Canadian Neonatal
Network. A multicenter study on the clinical outcome of chorioamnionitis in preterm infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009;372:e1-6.
77. Aziz N, Cheng YW, Caughey AB. Neonatal outcomes in the setting of preterm
premature rupture of membranes complicated by chorioamnionitis. J Matern-Fetal Neonat Med. 2009;22(9):780-4.
78. Ogunyemi D, Murillo M, Jackson U, Hunter N, Alperson B. The relationship
between placental histopathology findings and perinatal outcome in preterm infants. J Matern-Fetal Neonat Med. 2003;13:102-9.
79. Kelly R, Holzman C, Senagore P, Wang J, Tian Y, Rahbar MH, et al. Placental
vascular pathology findings and pathways to preterm delivery. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;170(2):148-58.
80. Nicholson JM, Kellar LC, Kellar GM. The impact of the interaction between increasing gestational age and obstetrical risk on birth outcomes: Evidence of a varying optimal time of delivery. J Perinatol. 2006;26:392-402.
81. Jelin AC, Kaimal AJ, Kuzniewicz M, Little SE, Cheng YW, Caughey AB. Preterm
preeclampsia: 32 to 37 weeks gestation. J Matern-Fetal Neonat Med. 2012;25(11):2198-201.
82. Ross MG, Downey CA, Bemis-Heys R, Nguyen M, Jacques DL, Stanziano G.
Prediction by maternal risk factors of neonatal intensive care admissions: Evaluation of >59,000 women in national managed care programs. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;181:835-42.
83. Habli M, Levine RL, Qian L, Sibai B. Neonatal outcomes in pregnancies with
preeclampsia or gestational hypertension and in normotensive pregnancies that delivered at 35, 36, or 37 weeks of gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197:e1-7.
84. Masoura S, Kalogiannidis I, Margioula-Siarkou C, Diamanti E, Papouli M,
Drossou-Agakidou V, et al. Neonatal outcomes of late preterm deliveries with preeclampsia. Minerva Ginecol. 2012;44:109-15.
85. Hansen AR, Barnes CM, Folkman J, McElrath TF. Maternal preeclampsia predicts
the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J Pediatr. 2010;156:532-6.
86. Gray PH, Hurley TM, Rogers YM, O'Callaghan MJ, Tudehope DI, Phty M, et al.
Survival and neonatal and neurodevelopmental outcome of 24-29 week gestation infants according to primary cause of preterm delivery. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;37(2):161-8.
87. Petraglia F, Imperatore A, Challis JRG. Neuroendocrine mechanisms in pregnancy
and parturition. Endocr Rev. 2010;31(6):783-816.
88. Dole N, Savitz DA, Hertz-Picciotto I, Siega-Riz AM, McMahon MJ, Buekens P.
Maternal stress and preterm birth. Am J Epidemiol. 2003;157(1):14-24.
89. Diego MA, Jones NA, Field T, Hernandez-Reif M, Schanberg S, Kuhn C, et al.
Maternal psychological distress, prenatal cortisol, and fetal weight. Psychosom Med. 2006;68:747-53.
90. Chung TKH, Lau TK, Yip ASK, Chiu HFK, Lee DTS. Antepartum depressive
symptomatology is associated with adverse obstetric neonatal outcomes. Psychosom Med. 2001;63:830-4.
91. Field T, Diego M, Dieter J, Hernandez-Reif M, Schanberg S, Kuhn C, et al.
Prenatal depression effects on the fetus and the newborn. Infant Behav Dev. 2004;27:216-29.
92. Fadl HE, Ostlund KM, Magnuson AFK, Hanson USB. Maternal and neonatal outcomes and time trends of gestational diabetes mellitus in Sweden from 1991 to 2003. Diabet Med. 2010;27:436-41.
93. Persson M, Norman M, Hanson U. Obstetric and perinatal outcomes in type 1
diabetic pregnancies: A large, population-based study. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(11):2005-9.
94. Kaymak O, Iskender CT, Ustunyurt E, Yildiz Y, Doganay M, Danisman N.
Retrospective evaluation of perinatal outcome in women with mild gestational hyperglycemia. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2011;37(8):986-91.
95. Persson M, Hanson U. Neonatal morbidities in gestational diabetes mellitus.
Diabetes Care. 1998;21(2):79-84.
96. Morse S, Zheng H, Tang Y, Roth J. Early school-age outcomes of late preterm
infants. Pediatrics. 2009;123:e622-9.
97. Woythaler MA, McCormick MC, Smith VC. Late preterm infants have worse 24-
month neurodevelopmental outcomes than term infants. Pediatrics. 2011;127:e622- 9.
98. Shapiro-Mendoza C, Kotelchuck M, Barfield W, Davin CA, Diop H, Silver M, et
al. Enrollment in early intervention programs among infants born late preterm, early term, and term. Pediatrics. 2013;132(1):e61-9.
99. Petrini JR, Dias T, McCormick MC, Massolo ML, Green NS, Escobar GJ.
Increased risk of adverse neurological development for late preterm infants. J Pediatr. 2009;154(2):169-76.
100. Nepomnyaschy L, Hegyi T, Ostfeld BM, Reichman NE. Developmental outcomes
of late preterm infants at 2 and 4 years. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16(8):1612- 24.
101. Quigley MA, Poulsen G, Boyle E, Wolke D, Field D, Alfirevic Z, et al. Early term
and late preterm birth are associated with poorer school performance at age 5 years: A cohort study. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2012;97(3):167-73.
102. Baron IS, Erickson K, Ahronovich MD, Coulehan K, Baker R, Litman FR.
Visuospatial and verbal fluency relative deficits in “complicated” late-preterm preschool children. Early Hum Dev. 2009;85:751-4.
103. Gurka MJ, LoCasale-Crouch J, Blackman JA. Long-term cognition, achievement,
socioemotional, and behavioural development of healthy late-preterm infants. Arach Pediat Adol Med. 2010;164(6):525-32.
104. Chyi LJ, Lee HC, Hintz SR, Gould JB, Sutcliffe TL. School outcomes of late preterm infants: Special needs and challenges for infants born at 32 to 36 weeks gestation. J Pediatr. 2008;153(1):25-31.
105. Lipkind HS, Slopen ME, Pfeiffer MR, McVeigh KH. School-age outcomes of late
preterm infants in New York City. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;206(222):e1-6.
106. Williams BL, Dunlop AL, Kramer M, Dever BV, Hogue C, Jain L. Perinatal
origins of first-grade academic failure: Role of prematurity and maternal factors. Pediatrics. 2013;131(4):693-700.
107. Poulsen G, Wolke D, Kurinczuk JJ, Boyle EM, Field D, Alfirevic Z, et al.
Gestational age and cognitive ability in early childhood: A Population-based cohort study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2013;27(4):371-9.
108. Silva A, Metha Z, O'Callaghan FJ. The relative effects of size at birth, postnatal
growth, and social factors on cognitive function in late childhood. Ann Epidemiol. 2006;16:469-76.
109. Talge NM, Holzman C, Wang J, Lucia V, Gardiner J, Breslau N. Late-preterm birth
and its association with cognitive and socioemotional outcomes at 6 years of age. Pediatrics. 2010;126:1124-31.
110. Linnet KM, Wisborg K, Agerbo E, Secher NJ, Thomsen PH, Henriksen TB.
Gestational age, birth weight, and the risk of hyperkinetic disorder. Arch Dis Child. 2006;91:655-60.
111. Harris MN, Voigt RG, Barbaresi WJ, Voge GA, Killian JM, Weaver AL, et al.
ADHD and learning disabilities in former late preterm infants: A population-based birth cohort. Pediatrics. 2013;132(3):e630-6.
112. Noble KG, Fifer WP, Rauh VA, Nomura Y, Andrews HF. Academic achievement
varies with gestational age among chidlren born at term. Pediatrics. 2012;130(2):e257-64.
113. Yang S, Platt RW, Kramer MS. Variation in child cognitive ability by week of
gestation among healthy term births. Am J Epidemiol. 2010;177(4):399-406.
114. Adams-Chapman I. Neurodevelopmental outcome of the late preterm infant. Clin
Perinatol. 2006;33(4):947-64.
115. Kinney HC. The near-term (late preterm) human brain and risk for periventricular
leukomalacia: A review. Semin Perinatol. 2006;30:81-8.
116. Munakata S, Okado T, Okahashi A, Yoshikawa K, Usukura Y, Makimoto M, et al.
Gray matter volumetric MRI differences in late-preterm and term infants. Brain Dev. 2013;35(1):10-6.
117. Davis EP, Buss C, Muftuler LT, Head K, Hasso A, Wing DA, et al. Children's brain development benefits from longer gestation. Front Psychol. 2011;2(1):1-7.
118. Sesma HW, Georgieff MK. The effect of adverse intrauterine and newborn
environments on cognitive development: The experiences of premature delivery and diabetes during pregnancy. Dev Psychopathol. 2003;15:991-1015.
119. Shonkoff JP, Marshall PC. The biology of developmental vulnerability. In:
Shonkoff JP, Meisels SJ, editors. Handbook of early childhood intervention. Second ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2000. p. 35-53.
120. Shonkoff JP and Phillips DA, editors. From neurons to neighbourhoods: The
science of early childhood development.. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press; 2000.
121. Pevalin DJ, Wade TJ, Brannigan A. Parental assessment of early childhood
development: Biological and social covariates. Infant Child Dev. 2003;12:167-75.
122. Aylward GP. The relationship between environmental risk and developmental