Capítulo 1. Perspectiva internacional del sector turístico y de alojamientos
1.3. Oferta convencional de alojamientos turísticos
It is clear bv notv that a Listen-and-Do form at—
that is, inform ation gathering and inform ation using— is recom m ended for listening instructional
activities in the ESL or EFL curriculum . Listening com prehension in today’s language curriculum m ust go far beyond a 20-minute tape a day or a paragraph or two read aloud followed by a series of
"test” questions about the factual content.
Listen-and-Do in the listening co m p re h en sion co n tex t im plies an outcom e “objective.” T he purpose o f oral com m unication in the real world is to achieve a g enuine outcom e; it may be verv simple (e.g., enjoying sociable conversation) or it nrav be very com plex (e.g., u n d e rsta n d in g intri
cate instructions), b u t an outcom e is achieved.
This sam e atten tio n to outcom e m ust be a p a rt of any listening c o m p reh en sio n activity p la n n e d for use in the second language learn in g context.
M inim um re q u ire m e n ts fo r two-wav oral co m m u n icatio n are two active p articip an ts and an o u tc o m e . P a rtic ip a n ts a lte rn a te roles of sp eak er-sender a n d listener-receiver. One-wav c o m m u n ic a tio n req u ires o n e active p a rticip a n t (a listener-receiver), one long-distance partici
p a n t (a speaker-sender), e ith e r “live" or recorded, and an outcom e.
W hat is an outcome} A ccording to Sinclair (1984), an outcom e is a realistic task that people can envision themselves doing and accom plishing som ething. An outcom e is an essential com ponent in both two-wav and one-way com m unication lis
tening com prehension activities.
Six b road categories of outcom e are dis
cussed below. Each, o f course, can be subdivided into m ore narrowlv focused specific outcom es, which can be m odified to suit a given student group. Lesson outcom es can be graded toward gradual expansion of difficultv, complexity, and increasing p erform ance expectations for students.
A lesson mav co n ta in m o re th an o n e o u t
com e, a lth o u g h too m am o u tcom es for a given activitv mav be overw helm ing. Any o u tco m e can be used at any age, as lo n g as it is a p a rt o f a task th a t is a p p ro p ria te to th e age, interests, a n d lan guage proficiency level o f the learners.
T h e re is overlap betw een som e o u tcom e categories, a n d no a tte m p t is m ad e h e re to m ake th em m utually exclusive. They are p re s e n te d as an o rg anizing fram ew ork for c o n sid e ratio n by- teachers in d eveloping class o r listening library m aterials.
This categon- includes responses to things such as directions, instructions, and descriptions in a varietv o f contexts. Examples include listening and
■ D raw ing a pictu re, figure, o r design.
■ Locating routes o f specific points on a m ap.
■ Selecting a p ictu re o f a p erso n , place, or th in g from description.
■ Identifying a p erso n , place, o r th in g from description.
■ P erfo rm in g h a n d or bodv m ovem ents as in songs a n d gam es such as “Sim on Savs” o r
"Do the H okev Pokey.”
■ O p e ra tin g a piece o f e q u ip m e n t such as a cam era, a reco rd er, a m icrowave oven, o r a pencil sh arpener.
■ C a rn in g out steps in a process such as a m ath problem , a science ex p erim ent, or a cooking sequence.
Outcome 2. Listening and Transferring Information
Two kinds o f in fo rm a tio n tran sfer are featured:
spoken-to-written (i.e., h e a rin g in fo rm a tio n a n d w riting it) a n d spoken-to-spoken (i.e. h e a rin g in fo r
m ation a n d tra n sm ittin g it in sp eech).
Spoken-to-written T he following are som e activi
ties for spoken-to-written practice.
■ L istening a n d taking a m essage (in p e rso n or bv te le p h o n e ) by tra n sc rib in g th e e n tire m essage w ord for w ord if it is very sh o rt o r bv w riting dow n a list o f th e im p o rta n t item s if it is long; the p u rpose is to give a n o th e r person a clear sense o f the message.
■ L istening a n d filling in blanks in a g a p p e d storv gam e in o rd e r to com p lete th e story.
■ L istening a n d co m p letin g a form o r c h a rt in o rd e r to use the in fo rm atio n fo r a later p u r
pose. such as m aking a decision o r solving a problem .
■ L istening an d sum m arizing th e gist o f a sh o rt storv, re p o rt, o r talk in o r d e r to re p o rt it to a th ird person.
■ L istening to a “how to" talk an d w riting an o u tlin e o f the steps in th e seq u en ce (e.g., how to cook so m eth in g , how to use a piece o f e q u ip m e n t, how to pkiv a gam e) in o rd e r to e a rn o u t the action.
■ L istening to a talk or lectu re a n d taking notes in o rd e r to use the in fo rm a tio n later for som e a purpose.
A p o p u la r activity called jigsaw listening is suggested by G eddes a n d Sturtriclge (1979). In o n e form o f jigsaw listening, small groups o f stu
d en ts listen to differen t parts o f a set o f in fo r
m atio n an d write down the im p o rta n t points of th e ir p o rtions. T h e n they share th e ir in fo rm a
tion with o th e r groups so th at a story or a seq u en ce o f actions can be co m p leted , a p ro b lem solved, o r a decision m ade.
Spoken-to-spoken Jigsaw listen in g also can be used with a spoken-to-spoken tran sfer o f in fo r
m ation. O th e r activities in this m o d e are the following:
■ L istening to directions, th e n passing them alo n g to a th ird perso n who m ust use the in fo rm a tio n to e a rn ' out a task.
■ L istening to p a rt o f a storv a n d re p e a tin g it to others.
(For exam ples see Davis a n d Rinvolucri 1988.
pp. 29-30 a n d M orlev 1984. pp. 68-69.)
Outcome 3. Listening and Solving Problems
M any kinds o f activities fo r e ith e r groups o r in d i
viduals can be developed in this category. O n e is gam es an d puzzles:
■ W ord gam es in w hich the answers m ust be derived from verbal clues.
■ N u m b e r gam es a n d “story" a rith m e tic problem s.
■ Asking questions in o rd e r to identify som e
thing, as in “Twenty Q uestions" o r “A nim al, V egetable, o r M ineral."
■ C lassro o m versions o f “P assw o rd ,”
“Je o p ard y ,” o r "Twenty Q u estio n s” in w hich careful listening is critical to the successful c o m p le tio n o f th e gam e.
■ M inute m ysteries in w hich students, listen
ing to the te a c h e r or a tape, read a verv sh o rt mvsterv storv: this can be follow ed by small g ro u p w ork in w hich stu dents fo rm u late solutions.
■ A jigsaw mvsterv in which each g ro u p listens to a tape which provides one o f the clues.
G roups th en share inform ation with every
one in o rd e r to solve the mvsterv.
M ore d e m a n d in g varieties o f p ro b le m solving are fo u n d in riddles, logic puzzles, an d o th e r in tellectual problem -solving activities.
Real-world problem s can include:
* C om parison sh o p p in g tasks using re c o rd e d conversations for practice (e.g., asking for prices from several ren tal car agencies, llorist shops, or b a rb e r shops, th e n choos
ing the best b arg ain ), followed bv sim ilar field trips.
-■ Short descriptions of court cases, with listen
ers asked to m ake a decision and d efen d it.
Field trips can be assigned in which pairs o f stu
d ents go o ut to do co m parison sh o p p in g for p ro d u cts or services, th e n re p o rt back to the e n tire class.
Outcome 4. Listening, Evaluating, and Manipulating Information
T hese outcom es are intellectually challen g in g ones in w hich th e listen er evaluates a n d / o r m an ip u lates the in fo rm atio n received in som e m anner. Lesson activities for individuals, pairs, o r small g ro u p s can take m a m d ire c tio n s, in clu d in g th e following:
• W riting in fo rm a tio n received a n d review
ing it in o rd e r to answ er questions or solve a pro b lem .
® E valuating in form ation a n d reviewing it in o rd e r to m ake a decision o r develop a plan of action.
■ Evaluating arg u m e n ts in o rd e r to take a position.
■ E valuating cause-and-effect in fo rm atio n .
■ M aking p re d ic tio n s fro m in fo rm a tio n received.
■ S um m arizing o r giving th e gist o f in fo rm a tion received.
* Evaluating an d c o m b in in g o r c o n d e n sin g in fo rm atio n .
* Evaluating an d e lab o ratin g or ex te n d in g in fo rm atio n .
■ O rg anizing u n o rd erecl in fo rm a tio n into a p a tte rn o f orderlv relationships: c h ro n o lo g ical s e q u e n c in g , spatial re la tio n sh ip s, cause-and-effect. o r problem -solution.
Field trips are challenging and useful for interm ediate and advanced learners. Students can be assigned fact-finding, inform ation-gathering tasks for panel presentations or use in a project. At m ore advanced levels, preparing for and e a rn in g out a d eb ate o r discussion assignm ent on cur
re n t local, national, o r in te rn a tio n a l issues can use b o th aural a n d w ritten in fo rm a tio n and involves the stu d e n t in evaluating an d m a n ip u lating inform ati o n .
Outcome 5. Interactive Listening- and-Speaking: Negotiating Meaning through Questioning/Answering Routines
H ere the focus o f the o u tco m e is on bo th the product o f tra n sm ittin g in fo rm a tio n a n d the nrocess o f n e g o tiatin g m ea n in g in interactive reciprocal listener speaker exchanges. Initiallv.
m small groups, (i.e.. fo u r to ten stu d e n ts), one stu d en t cam give a b rie f p rese n tatio n such as a W ort set of locallv relevant a n n o u n c e m e n ts, a :ive-m inute "how-to" talk, a perso n al store or anecdote, o r an ex p lan ato rv talk using visual aids. (See M orlev 1992.)
E ith er d u rin g or im m ediatelv after the pres
entation, each listener is re q u ire d to ask at least me question in a q u estio n in g answ ering ro u tine. At first listeners can be given a card listing a question tvpe a n d assigned the responsibilitv tor asking th at kind of question. T h e listener- q u estioner m ust co n tin u e with follow-up ques
tions as necessarv until both participants are uttisfied th at clear m eaning has b e e n negotiated.
This m eans that the speaker is also a listener and
m ust keep qu estio n in g th e listener-questioner to m ake sure o f the n a tu re a n d in te n t o f the his or h e r questions. V ideotape o r audio recordings of these class sessions with subseq u en t viewing a n d discussion of selected segm ents cjuicklv d e m o n strates the im p o rtan ce o f neg o tiatio n o f m ean in g an d how m uch tim e a n d energv m ust som etim es be e x p e n d e d in o rd e r to arrive at a consensus on m eaning.
A wide variety o f q uestion types can be used in this kind o f activitv, b u t for each lesson it is useful to have onlv a lim ited n u m b e r o f question tvpes used. Som e exam ples are the following:
* R epetition— questions asking only fo r ver
batim re p e titio n o f in fo rm a tio n (“C ould vou rep e a t the p art ab o u t xx?").
« Paraphrase — q u e stio n s ask in g only fo r resta te m e n t in differen t words, o ften words that tire sim pler an d easier to u n d e rs ta n d ("C ould vou sav th a t again?" “I d o n ’t u n d e r stand what vou m ean bv xx.").
Verification— questions seeking co n firm a
tion that the in fo rm atio n was u n d e rsto o d correctlv bv the listen er ("Did I u n d e rs ta n d vou to sav that xx?" "In o th e r words, vou m ean xx." "Do vou m ea n xx?”).
C larification — q u e stio n s se ek in g m o re d etails o r an e x p la n a tio n o f an ite m ("C ould vou tell m e w hat vou m ean by xx?”
"C ould vou explain xx?" "C ould v ou give us an exam ple of xx?").
4 Elaboration— questions th at ask fo r ad d i
tional in fo rm atio n on a p o in t in tro d u c e d in the p rese n tatio n (“Could vou tell us m ore ab o u t xx?").
* Extension— questions th a t ask fo r in fo rm a tion on a new p o in t, one th a t was n o t in tro d u c e d in the p rese n tatio n (“W hat a b o u t xx?" "How is this rela te d to xx?”).
e C hallenge — q u e stio n s th a t c h a lle n g e points given or conclusions draw n (“W hat did vou base xx on?” "How d id vou reach the conclusion o f xx?” "How did vou xx?”
"Whv did vou xx?”) .
Tasks with this outcom e can include listening to songs, stories, plays, poem s, jokes, anecdotes, or, as suggested by Ur, “general interesting chat im provised by the te a c h e r ’ (1984, p. 29). Som e of the activities in this categorv com e u n d e r the h e a d in g o f interactional listening, different from the previous o u tcom e categories, which bv and large are focused on transactional outcom es.
F or these tasks, U r n otes th a t setting anv o u tco m e o th e r th a n enjoving, for instance, mac- b eco m e su p e rflu o u s o r even h arm fu l to the c o m p le tio n o f th e o u tco m e o f just enjoying.
U r m akes an especiallv good case for infor
m al “teacher-chat” as an excellent source of listen
ing m aterial and observes that it s e n e s as a relaxing break from m ore intensive work. She sug
gests “teacher-talk” on personal topics (e.g., vour favorite hobby, plans for the future, your opinions o n topical or local issues) (pp. 62-63). She notes th at this, in turn, mav lead naturally to “student- talk” on sim ilar subjects for loosely structured and com fortable com m unicative classroom interludes, ones th at afford student “practice” opportunities in bo th listening an d speaking.
S E L F -A C C E S S /S E L F -S T U D Y L IS T E N IN G A N D L A N G U A G E L E A R N IN G
T he purpose o f a self:access/self-study resource is to provide an inviting listening center within a con
ventional language laboratory o r a broader lan
guage resource center. This self-studv facility needs to offer a wide choice o f appealing audio and \id e o materials on a variety of topics an d at a range of pro
ficiency levels. Books to accom pany tapes are use
ful, of course. However, in addition to (or in place of) comm ercial books, a library of listening m ateri
als m ight also include carefully designed worksheet m aterials that present listening tasks for self-studv.
pair-study, or small-group study, both on the school prem ises and for checkout and hom e use.
M aterials for free-listening time like free- reading time) can be provided and students can be given a c h an ce to self-select from a Intoning
library th a t includes stories a n d poem s, talks an d lectures, plays a n d literary classics, particip ato ry gam es, puzzles, riddles, a n d read-along o r sing- alo n g stories, songs, a n d gam es. Com m ercial audio- an d videotapes can easily be ad ap ted for lis
tening library use. M ore innovatively, a collection o f local audio o r video recordings o f conversa
tions, songs, music events, lectures, or panel dis
cussions can be com piled. H om e videos can be an appealing addition to a listening library Such locally p ro d u ced auditory m aterials have a special relevance and applicability potential that com m ercial m aterials lack.