Affective factors in this study were seen as subjective feelings and dispositions held about an activity. These encompass emotions, perceptions and attitudes about a phenomenon. Shen (2002) argues that these are not inborn but have roots in
environmentally induced favourable and unfavourable experiences or variables. This section looks at the perceptions and attitudes held about design and technology that have led to girls' disengagement with the subjects. These perceptions and attitudes bring out the nature of the subjects as well.
(i) Perceptions held of design and technology subjects. Results show that 77 out of 321 fourth form girls or 23% say they would have taken a design and technology subject if free choice of subjects prevailed in schools and if all the subjects students wanted to take were offered (see appendix xliv). The majority, that is 77%, said they still would not have taken the subjects for various reasons presented in this section. Most of the girls in the 77% bracket perceived that the subjects espoused male values that did not support their gender identity as girls. Consistent with Wigfield and Eccles (2000), the fourth form girls looked at their self-image regarding female roles and how this self image fitted with design and technology activities. To most of these girls, design and technology subjects were "heavy work", "heavy subjects", "physical work", "dirty", "filthy", "greasy", "dirty practical work", "man's thing", "boys' thing" for girls to take.
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form choice of and achievement in D&T 166
Most girls in the eight schools shared these views. This could also mean that girls saw themselves as weaker than boys physically. As one girl put it:
Many of us girls just think that these subjects are for boys. It is too heavy work for us to do, imagine moulding and laying bricks. It is the heaviness of the work that, I think would suit boys who have more strength (Vimbai:SMRSM).
Another girl hated the dirty work involved and pointed out that her girl identity conflicted with putting on 'male' clothes. She commented:
My brother who is doing an apprenticeship in motor mechanics looks filthy. I mean the idea of getting grease under my nails just freaks me. I just don't like the idea of getting so dirty and, I can't picture any of us girls in overalls getting all greasy and I got long hair, can you picture my hair in oil? I just can't see that happening (Cheryl: WGRPSM).
The views of these girls were compared with those of adults in the community to see if other people shared similar views. One teacher stereotypically supported Cheryl's view that there was a lot of dirty work that girls would not want to handle. She pointed out that, "Girls are selective and smart in their nature. They wouldn't want to get dirty mixing mortar for building. What they prefer is a clean environment like home, doing their sewing and cooking" (FFFf:TGBSH). The female building and technology teacher at Mau however, viewed the subjects differently saying that, "Actually these days girls are not worried about doing men's jobs. If you look at this school, they are doing subjects like agriculture. I don't see them as worried about dirt" (FBAT:MRSM). One female parent however shared the 'heaviness' and 'dirty subjects' views pointing that:
Take building for example, this is a job that requires strength in pushing wheelbarrows and laying bricks. Some girls will resent this kind of dirty and heavy work in the same way they would not like dirt in metal technology and wood technology and design (FP:RPSM).
The heaviness of the work involved also received support from one education officer who intimated 'normalcy' in girls and boys' separate subjects saying:
They are assumed to be heavy subjects. They are not lighter like what I would term the normal girls' subjects like sewing, cooking and so on. In most cases girls simply feel that perhaps they are not physically fit enough to handle those heavy subjects as they term them (EO).
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form choice of and achievement in D&T 167 The mere mention of wood technology is associated with heavy logs and planks which girls may find too difficult to handle. Even when I go to observe lessons in wood technology, I have always questioned myself whether I would have been interested in doing the subject myself. Patience and skill in executing dovetail joints and all the grooving, I do not think I would have managed that
(FPr:MbRSH).
Of the 309 girls who filled in the questionnaire and were not taking any design and technology subjects, most of them perceived the subjects as difficult. The subjects were associated with mathematics and science that the girls said were difficult subjects. As one girl put it, "I think it is a difficult area since it involves a lot of science and
mathematics" (Tatenda:MGBSM). This mere association with mathematics had the effect of putting girls off the subject. Many of the fourth form girls said they associated difficult subjects with male participants and easier subjects with female participants. This
reflected a low self-concept of ability on the part of girls. As comments by one girl and a teacher reflected:
They are difficult and are only suitable for boys (Vas:SMRSM).
Yes, boys take subjects like technical graphics that are difficult. Boys also take wood technology while girls take simple subjects like fashion and fabrics (FFFf:MRSM).
Girls not taking design and technology perceived that all the design and technology subjects were difficult. Girls taking technical graphics felt that it was only metal technology and design, wood technology and design and building technology and design that were difficult while technical graphics and design was manageable but challenging. One girl said that, "I wouldn't consider taking them because they are all difficult" (Theresa:TPSH). Another girl said that, "Technical graphics is challenging but we are doing it but I think metal, wood and building technology and design are more difficult. Perhaps it is because we have never done them" (Rudo:SGGASM).
Two Gemston girls perceived design and technology subjects as helping those taking them in other subjects like mathematics, physics and technical graphics because the subjects and their concept bases were related in such areas as calculations and geometry. As comments of one of the girls reflected:
You find that the subject helps you in your mathematical geometry because they share common themes. In mathematics there are geometrical constructions and you find that students taking technical graphics are very good at construction geometry (Rudo:SGGASM).
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form choice of and achievement in D&T 168 For the 12 girls who were taking technical graphics and design at Mari, Gemston and Riverdale, design and technology were not different from other subjects that anyone could take and achieve in. One of these girls felt that many other girls were simply not keen on venturing into what they saw as unfamiliar territory. She commented that, "many girls just say they can't draw but they have never tried. They just surrender and say they can't do it" (Rumbie:SMGBSM).
All 321 fourth form girls perceived that one factor that prevented many fourth form girls from taking design and technology subjects was mere numbers. Fourth form girls saw more boys and male teachers in school workshops than girls and female teachers. Similarly, the girls saw more girls and female teachers outnumbering boys and virtually no male teachers in home economics subjects. This made girls perceive that the two subject areas were not only different but synonymous with someone's gender orientation. In terms of design and technology subjects, one teacher said that, "The subjects are still considered very much a boys' thing. You don't see women doing metal technology, wood technology or construction jobs. It's very much a man's thing
(WFFNT:RPSM).
Female teachers and fourth form girls taking and not taking design and
technology subjects perceived that design and technology textbooks were male-biased with male specific language and illustrations to match and no mention of girls'
participation and achievement. They also perceived that the absence of literature in design and technology subjects written by women did not help the situation as males wrote using male-specific examples. The following excerpt from an interview with a teacher represents views of biases in literature:
Most examples in the textbooks are male in nature. They talk about men doing that. . . writers have always been male . . . and all the older books have males illustrated because the subjects have been male dominated. Most probably girls see the pictures and think that the subjects are for men (MTGT:RPSM).
Fourth form girls not taking any design and technology subjects at Gemston and Riverdale high SES schools pointed to the nature of design and technology knowledge as not the everyday language and kind of knowledge that girls were accustomed to in their growing up experiences. One girl who had dropped wood technology and design was critical of the workshop atmosphere. She said, "You enter a workshop and you see so many unfamiliar tools and machinery. Sometimes you don't even understand what the teacher will be saying because he talks about things you have no idea about"
(Clara:SRPSM). According to this girl, this made girls feel isolated, lonely and sometimes unwanted in the classroom.
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form girls' choice of and in D&T 169 Both design and technology and technical subjects teachers in all the eight
schools perceived that design and technology subjects had a stigma of subjects for the non-academic stream in Zimbabwe was another factor believed to prevent girls from taking the subjects. The teachers mentioned that colonialism brought the system of streaming students on ability grounds. Students who were not academically capable were considered to be hands on and skills oriented instead of minds on. The academically capable students were assigned to academic subjects and low stream students to skills or technical subjects. This result corroborates Fleer and Jane ( 1 999, p. 82), who argue that the problem rests in "culture that sees technology as being a second class intellectual pursuit or activity, which can be traced back to things like technical schools before the restructuring. If you went to a technical school, you went because you weren't very academic". One principal confirmed this:
These are important subjects because we do not have all students who are
academically inclined. Some are good at using their hands and should be allowed to pursue them. Sadly this seems to be the general thinking that the subjects are for the less able students and us teachers tend to use these criteria often when allocating subjects (MPr:MGBSM).
One design and technology teacher perceived that academic subject teachers looked down upon technical students as well as their teachers. Sadly, with everyday reality in Zimbabwe showing that academic subjects led to more worthwhile career and life endeavours, many students avoided design and technology and technical subjects. As the teacher put it:
Academic subject teachers usually call our students derogatory names and girls tend to see these subjects as meant not only for boys but also, for those who are dull and avoid them (TGT:DGASH).
Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture was also perceived by both design and technology and technical teachers as having had no insight in establishing design and technology as a special component of traditional male subjects such as metal technology, wood technology, technical graphics and building technology and design while
suspiciously leaving out home economics subjects like food and nutrition and fashion and fabrics. This oversight assumed all pupils including girls would be interested in taking male design and technology subjects and made people believe that design was not part of knowledge that females should have. One teacher commented that, "I do not know why the design component is the approach for teaching traditional male subjects and not home economics. It appears like Ministry is saying girls cannot do it or that it is irrelevant to their subjects" (FBAT:MRSM). Teachers in all eight schools and students
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form girls' choice of and achievement in D&T 1 70 perceived that design should have been made a core component of every technical
subject including home economics subjects and not design and technology subjects only.
(ii) Self-confidence and self-esteem. The twelve girls taking technical graphics
and design at Mari, Gemston and Riverdale perceived themselves as able to succeed in the subject. The girls saw the subject as a stepping-stone to the careers they desired to pursue and said that this increased their self-confidence in the subject. One of the girls said that, "I feel confident to achieve in technical graphics as I am in any other subject. I hope to use the knowledge gained to pursue a career in architecture" (Clara:SRPSM). Five girls taking technical graphics and design from Gemston and one from Riverdale schools perceived that their self-confidence was raised high when they took the subject out of determination to prove critics wrong that they could achieve in them. A student at Riverdale said, "Part of me says I want to prove that I can do it, just for the sake of proving that I can do it. (Clara:SRPSM). This was also echoed by another girl who said, "I wanted to show my parents and friends that I could do technical graphics and pass it because I got the talent to do it like any other person (Tendai:SGGASM).
The performance of fourth form girls in technical graphics classes I observed at Gemston and Riverdale proved that there was no basis for saying girls could not take and do well in traditional male subjects. As I went through students' work, their drawing folios and the teacher's mark book at the two schools, I noticed that there was no
noticeable difference between the quality of girls' work and achievement levels with that of boys. All the six girls were above average in their performance and one of the girls at Gemston was doing extremely well to be in the top five positions in the class. Her teacher said, "It all depends on how comfortable the girls feel in the subject. The more they are at home, the more they will enjoy it and will be able to achieve in it"
(FfGT:GGASM).
Feelings of self-confidence and self-esteem were however, found to be low in girls whose previous subject experiences were negative. One questionnaire response on what was girls' reasons for taking and not taking design and technology subjects said that, "I realised that my marks were beginning to fall so I dropped technical graphics and design for fashion and fabrics" (Princess:SGGASM). For this girl, her self-confidence and sense of belonging to design and technology subjects was lowered by the falling marks and this added feelings of withdrawal. Design and technology teachers at both Harare and Masvingo rural schools perceived that girls tended to lower their performance in design and technology because of their self-belief that they could not perform to the same level as boys. The teachers saw this as an attitude problem brought about by cultural norms. As one teacher commented:
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form girls' choice of and achievement in D&T 1 7 1 It i s just an attitude problem. Girls have been brought up to believe that they cannot beat boys in anything. In the Shona culture women cannot be above men in any way. This means that even the most able girls tend to lower their
performance levels in order to let boys take pole position. They think that boys and men should be leaders (FBAT:MRSM).
A parent at Riverdale private school perceived that apart from cultural practices, girls did not achieve in design and technology subjects because they learnt the subject skills quite late in life at secondary school level when boys would have been engaged in such skills from a very young age. She perceived that it would be quite difficult at this late stage to cultivate enough interest in girls and raise enough confidence in them to achieve. She also perceived that if girls were to start taking these subjects at the same time as boys, they would be able to perform at the same level. As she put it:
I believe that these are subjects that girls usually begin to do at secondary school. To cultivate their interest in the subjects at this late stage is sometimes difficult. Girls begin to learn the skills for the first time and yet boys would have been doing the work and this will not give girls an advantage over boys. Many of the technical subjects' skills are things that boys are familiar with. So, learning these things at school will be like perfecting skills acquired earlier on in life
(FP:RPSM).
One teacher perceived that girls began the subjects with a fear of the unknown but later discovered that they were equally capable. He said:
Many may not have the confidence to take the subjects but, once they have enrolled, the fear disappears and they begin to enjoy themselves and do well in the subjects. The problem is breaking the ice. (WTT:DGASH).
(iii) Negative attitudes towards subject. Results in this section focussed on fourth
form girls' attitudes to the institution of the subject, subject based careers and subject instruction. Girls not taking design and technology subjects at all eight schools had negative attitudes towards the subjects based on perceptions that taking the subjects would not fulfil their self-image of 'girlness' built by years of differential socialisation. A girl at Riverdale confirmed this by saying, "1 can't picture any of us girls in overalls
getting all greasy and 1 got long hair, can you picture my hair with oil? 1 just can't see
that happening" (WG:RPSM). This girl did not like the subjects because of the dirt associated with them which did not fit her perceived identity of a girl.
Rural fourth form girls at Mau and Mbizi schools appeared resigned to social pressures to conform to their gender socialisation roles. None of these rural girls saw