Općenito o normi DIN EN ISO 7500-

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Overview

Video game technology has rapidly advanced in both technological and aesthetic design since its inception nearly 50 years ago. Its consumer appeal has steadily increased over the past several decades into a multibillion-dollar industry along with the diversity of players ranging from multicultural, age, and gender demographics (ESA, 2018). Video games do not discriminate across racial, cultural, or gender differences; they have proven to be an international phenomenon that continues to grow and thrive.

It is only natural that video games, due to their popularity and relevance in young people’s lives, can be created or modified to serve purposes suited for learning. The act of using game-based structures in educational situations has been practiced by educators for decades (Russell, 2016); using video games may be the next stage in game-based learning or simply an additional tool for teachers. However, a major difference between video games and other forms of gaming are the controversies surrounding the video gaming industry, such as perceived correlations linking video games to aggression, addiction, and violence (Kutner & Olson, 2008).

While some researchers have explored the benefits of using COTS games in the classroom (Gee, 2007, 2013; Squire, 2005), games whose sole purpose is to provide

educational assistance have entered the school environment as a way for students to bridge the gap between learning and fun. However, edutainment games have not yet been widely accepted by educators, administrators, or the general community at large due to the stigmas placed upon them through their connection with some COTS games (Böshe & Kattner, 2011).

The present study was designed to ascertain the nature of video games in educational settings. It aimed to test the viability of games designed to teach musical concepts and skills in the elementary general music classroom. In addition, the study examined the perspectives of elementary-aged students representing multiple

demographics and backgrounds of their personal feelings about video games in their homes and in school.

The findings revealed from this study contribute additional empirical evidence to the effectiveness of using digital game-based learning in music education. This chapter summarizes the objectives, procedures, and results of the study, along with outlining recommendations for the application of VGT in music learning environments. Recommendations for conducting future research in this field are also discussed,

concluding with a reflection on the potential future of VGT in both education and society.

Summary of Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the educational possibilities of video games designed to teach musical knowledge and skills in an elementary general music classroom. Selected games were compared and tested along with non-digital game-based learning methods such as lecture, class discussion, and in-class composition and

performance activities. In addition, students participated in a survey and interviews to explore common themes on the motivational qualities of video games and the potential for their inclusion in music education.

Many definitions of what constitutes a game have been offered by researchers over the last several years (Egenfelt-Nielsen, Smith, & Tosca, 2016; Kapp, 2012; Koster, 2014; McGonigal, 2011). However, for the purposes of this study, the definition of a game as described by Salen and Zimmerman (2004) was applied, such that a game “is a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome” (p. 72).

Aspects of VGT in educational environments were presented as an interconnected conceptual model (see Figure 1) involving elements of games in both commercial and learning atmospheres. This included the different categorizations of industry products, which are divided into games solely created for entertainment purposes (commercial-off- the-shelf, or COTS games) and games designed for educational purposes (serious games or edutainment). The present study used serious games involving elements of

entertainment such as animated characters, sound effects, and an engaging virtual environment.

Other aspects of VGT that were discussed as influential were stakeholder

perceptions of the viability of video games, as a positive force in both society and in the classroom. This included the potential benefits and consequences of video games’ effects on human behavior. Positive behavioral responses that have been correlated with video game play include motivation, immersion, increased creativity, socialization, and individuality (Annetta, 2010; Gee, 2007; Johnson, 2005; Prensky, 2006; Squire, 2005).

Negative effects of video game play as described by some researchers include an increase in aggressive and violent behavior, and the potential to become addicted to video game play to the point that it has become a classified disorder (Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Gentile, 2009; Ravaja et al., 2005; WHO, 2018). Such differences of opinion have created a large-scale debate about the nature of video games and their place in the digital age.

This study focused on the educational applications of VGT in the music classroom, including the ability of VGT to assist with the creation or achievement of learning objectives as defined by state and national standards. In addition, consideration was given to how to integrate VGT into an existing general music curriculum, and how to properly use VGT to assess and evaluate students formally.

Finally, educational barriers were explored for what prevents teachers and administrators from implementing VGT in the classroom. Reasons such as lack of technical resources, support from administrators, and proper training and professional developments were described for why some teachers are hesitant to utilize VGT (Archbell, 2009; Baek, 2008; Bensiger, 2012).

The study was designed as mixed method using quantitative and qualitative measures of data collection (Creswell, 2014; Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007; Wiersma & Jurs, 2009). Participants engaged in a quasi-random experimental pretest/posttest control design (Creswell, 2014), followed by a computerized survey after the experimental portion was completed. Randomly selected students were then asked to participate in a short semi-structured interview session. Data were triangulated and coded by multiple educational professionals using the constant comparison method (Boeije, 2002).

Participants were recruited from the fifth and sixth grade student body of an elementary school located in the northeastern United States in September 2017.

Participants were ages 10-12 and represented a variety of demographics as determined by information provided by the participating school’s Department of Education (NJDOE, 2018). Participants were allowed to be recorded into the data collection after signed consent forms from both the participant and the participant’s parent or legal guardian were received.

A total of 92 students from fifth and sixth grade, comprised of 39 males and 53 females, completed the consent forms and were factored into the data collection (n = 92). Racial information was also taken into account but not factored into the results of the study. The sample taken represented 49.72% of the total population of fifth and sixth graders from the participating school.

Of these 92 students, 82 completed the pretest/posttest control group design due to absences during one or more of the instructional sessions. Classes were categorized into three groups based on the normal schedule of classes predetermined by the school’s administration. All three groups took a Musical Skills and Knowledge pretest (Appendix B) based on several of the combined New Jersey Visual and Performance Arts Standards (NJDOE, 2014) and National Association for Music Education Standards (NAfME, 2014).

After completing the pretest, students in each group received three instructional sessions that took place once every 6 school days over a period of 4 weeks. The iPad group was given preselected iPad educational video games designed to teach and practice the standards presented on the pretest. The non-technology group was not given any

video games to play; lessons were comprised of a combination of teacher lectures, class discussion, and compositional/performance activities. The hybrid group received both video game play and teacher instruction equally. Each class session was 40 minutes in length and was completed without interruptions or distractions.

After the three class sessions were completed, all groups took the Music Skills and Knowledge Test again. Administration of the test was given by audio recording; sounds were played by a neutral musical tone. Students were given 40 minutes to complete the test; no student required additional time or did not finish. Results of the pretest and posttest were tabulated and statistically analyzed for comparison of means, ANOVA, and ANCOVA by group, sex, and grade level using SPSS Statistical Software version 24.

After completing the experimental pretest/posttest control group portion of the study, participating students completed an online survey created with TC Qualtrics. Ninety-two students completed the survey (n = 92), with a representation of 39 males and 53 females. The survey was a combination of questions collecting information about the participants’ personal use of video games at home and 5-point Likert-style questions regarding the participants’ personal views of video games as used in education and the music classroom.

After all participants completed the survey, two males and two females were randomly selected to participate in a one-on-one interview with an educational professional not directly affiliated with the study (n = 12). The interview was semi- structured and based on questions predetermined by the researcher. Interviews were recorded on an iPhone 6 using the application Voice Record Pro. After all interviews

were completed, coding was completed separately by the researcher, the interviewer, and the school’s principal using constant comparison (Boeije, 2002).

All data collection was complete by June of 2018. Materials including test scores, demographic information, survey results, and interview recordings were secured in a file drawer or transferred to a password-protected computer. Results were calculated

immediately after all data collection was completed and coincided with the conclusion of the 2017-18 school year.

Confidence intervals for the pretest/posttest control group design were set to 95% for mean scores. The iPad group achieved the highest mean score for the pretest of the three groups, followed by the non-technology group and the hybrid group. However, mean scores for the posttest showed the hybrid group as the highest scoring group, followed by the non-technology group and the iPad group. A comparison of means revealed that the hybrid group achieved the greatest amount of growth between the pretest and posttest, followed by the non-technology group and the iPad group.

ANOVA and ANCOVA analyses revealed no statistical significance when scores were compared by grade level or sex, leaving the iPad group assignment and difference of instructional design as the primary means of comparison between mean scores. Field notes taken during the instructional sessions observed greater enjoyment and engagement from students who had access to the iPad games. However, the iPad group required more assistance due to its lack of teacher instruction, while the hybrid group received teacher guidance along with the use of the games.

Following the conclusion of the posttest, students were informed of the nature of the study. The iPad and hybrid groups expressed interest in playing the games again and

learning new applications, while the non-technology group showed disappointment that they did not have access to the games and asked if they could play the games themselves. Extra time during class was given after the conclusion of the study for the non-

technology group to play as a reward for participating.

Survey and interview data also did not note a statistical difference between responses when categorized by grade level or sex. Males, however, played at home and with friends more frequently than females. Mean scores revealed that students played video games at home on an average of 1-5 hours per week, with or without friends. Popular gaming genres among students included action/adventure games, sports games, fighting games, and puzzle games. Music performance games were listed as rarely played.

The greatest preference of gaming design that motivated participants was the level of challenge the game presented, followed by its gameplay, story, graphics, and musical soundtrack. In application to educational situations, a majority of students believed that video games could be used to learn about music, though less participants reported that they would be interested in seeing more musical video games in school. Playing COTS music performance games was not a motivating factor in pursuing more formal music studies, as the primary reason why students play video games is for enjoyment or to occupy their time.

Individual interviews supported these data, as those who did not believe that video games should be used in school claimed that “they’re not for kids” and are also a distraction from higher priorities such as homework and extracurricular activities. Participants mostly agreed that a video game could be designed for music education, but

would need to include the same kind of engagement present in current COTS games. This would involve creating games with relatable characters, an immersive virtual world, the ability to play and compete with friends, a challenging yet fair difficulty, a scoring system that provides instant feedback, and customization for individual ability levels.

Comparison of the triangulation of data suggested that video game technology is favorable among most elementary school students of both sexes. Students played mostly for the quality of fun, specifically when they had the opportunity to play cooperatively and competitively with each other. Educational games were also received favorably, but not nearly as enthusiastically as COTS games.

Student opinions were divided about the use of video games in educational contexts as opposed to more direct teacher instruction. However, students were

enthusiastic about the prospect of designing a game used for music education, especially when given the opportunity to use features present in most COTS games. Most students mentioned they would play the iPad games again and expressed an interest in continuing to play after the study was completed.

It was also suggested that video games are a relevant and integral part of most young people’s social culture, with some participants playing over 5 hours per week. While males demonstrated a tendency to play more frequently than females, both sexes enjoy playing similar genres of games relatively equally. Enjoying games designed for educational purposes, however, will remain less in comparison with COTS games until more serious games are created with design principles inherent in successful commercial games.

Conclusions

The guiding questions that shaped the design of the present study were derived from a combination of current educational practices involving VGT, benefits and

detriments of adapting video game culture to serve educational needs, and perceptions of stakeholders that could potentially inform the future application of VGT in the music classroom. The conclusions drawn from the quantitative and qualitative data collection may assist in greater acceptance and empirical research of VGT, not just in public school elementary music education, but in all forms of educational organizations.

In summary, the four research questions that directed the study were as follows: Research Question #1: Are video games designed to teach musical knowledge and skills effective in the elementary general music classroom?

Research Question #2: How do these games compare to instruction based on class discussion and performance in teaching elementary school students musical knowledge and skills?

Research Question #3: What are the perceptions of elementary school students regarding VGT in their personal lives?

Research Question #4: What are the perceptions of elementary school students regarding VGT in educational environments?

The following conclusions were based on the primary findings generated from data collected in order to answer these questions adequately. Findings were categorized based on the temporal nature of the study and compared to prior research in the field.

Research Question #1: Are video games designed to teach musical knowledge and skills effective in the elementary general music classroom?

Mean scores collected during the pretest/posttest control group design suggested that VGT is effective in teaching musical skills and knowledge to elementary school general music students. This was done using edutainment, or serious gaming, iPad applications designed to practice certain aspects of musical concepts. Using edutainment games to form this conclusion cannot be generalized to COTS games, as they are

designed for entertainment purposes.

Although previous research has been conducted using COTS music performance games (Arrasvuori, 2006; Arsenault, 2008; Auerbach, 2010; Biamonte, 2011; Mercer, 2009; Miller, 2013; Peppler et al., 2011; Smith, 2004; Tobias, 2012), the results of the present study cannot be used to strengthen their arguments. COTS games were not considered for use in this study primarily because the results of these earlier experiments could not draw any correlations between playing commercial video games and learning music.

Studies involving video games specifically created for learning music contained similar results linking the positive affective behavior of gameplay to the acquisition of musical knowledge (Denis & Jouvelot, 2005; Hämäläinen et al., 2004; Jenson et al., 2008; Juslin et al. 2006; Karlsson et al., 2009; Wechselberger, 2016). It is possible to include the present study as grounds for additional evidence towards their conclusions, but there were differences in this study’s design, compared to previous attempts.

All of the games used in prior research were created by the researchers

themselves and thus not available commercially. As such, replications of experiments using these specific games are not possible and cannot be verified. The present study used games that are available for purchase by any music educator with iPad technology,

and can be verified independently under similar conditions. In addition, all of the studies described earlier were conducted in laboratory settings, which may have potentially affected the results, as opposed to holding the experiment within the context of the natural classroom environment. Though certain limitations existed by using this method, the results may be more applicable to real-world teaching practices.

When VGT is implemented appropriately by a music educator who is

knowledgeable of the specific software and taught effectively so students may manipulate them independently, then VGT has the potential to become a successful instructional tool for music education. This is also determined by factors such as the individual games used in instructional sessions, the technology available for use in the classroom, and the response its implementation receives from stakeholders such as students, parents, and administrative officials.

Research Question #2: How do these games compare to instruction based on class discussion and performance in teaching elementary school students musical knowledge and skills?

Research Question #2 focused on the comparison between using specific games to teach musical concepts and skills and instructional methodologies not involving VGT. These methods included teacher lecture, class discussion, and activities such as

composing, improvising, and performing individually and in groups. Based on the

considerations discussed previously, VGT may or may not be a more effective method of musical instruction than non-digital game-based learning.

While there are many commercially available games for teaching music, none are currently known to possess the same qualities that draw young people to COTS games.