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• Free Association Narrative Interview • Psychoanalytically Informed Analysis Methodologies focusing on unconscious formulation of Metaphor • Narative Enquiry • Discourse analysis • Interpretative Phenomenonlogical Analysis • Psycholinguistic Analysis Methodologies focusing on conscious / preconscious formulation of Metaphor • Grounded Theory • Thematic Analysis • Visual Image Interpretation Methodologies with no explicit theoretical position

3.8.1 Narrative Enquiry

Narrative enquiry is fundamentally a method of collating texts from various sources so that they make sense in context. This is usually conducted through a thematic approach that is tailored to the question, hypothesis and the material available. The narratives point to why the narrator chose to construct this version of reality, to what purpose (Lyons and LaBoskey, 2002) and how narrative is unified according to underlying principles (Johnson, 1993). However, in this study the material that is being investigated is not about narrative per se, but about a change in the participant that produces a metaphorical meaning. Another limitation is that in this study the image also forms part of the narrative, which cannot be accounted for in its visual form in narrative analysis. Whilst knowledge of narrative based principles is helpful to consider the way in which stories are formed and the context, this method is not suitable to answer the research question.

3.8.2 Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)

IPA has drawn on key principles of phenomenological investigation as described by Merleau-Ponty and Husserl. Smith and Osborn (2003) as a way of capturing a qualitative account of another’s experience have developed their

philosophical premise into a systematic methodology.31 IPA was originally designed by Smith and Osborn (2003) and the results of the critical review of fifty-two IPA studies by Brocki and Wearden (2006) confirmed the credibility of the method.

31 _{Other methodologies, such as discourse analysis, thematic analysis and grounded theory do}

IPA is a double hermeneutic method of research that analyses discourse for the phenomenological and interpreted themes. This means that the data collected, usually from interviews is themed for weighted occurrences that occur in the text and also, for the ways in which the observer understands the experience of the interviewee. The method does not attempt to draw conclusions about cause and effect but does attempt to make sense of the interviewee’s experience.

However on closer investigation the IPA paradigm does not offer equal emphasis to how the communication is affectively received and experienced by the therapist (the countertransference), or how the therapist processes the

countertransference for its dynamic qualities. IPA focuses largely on ‘bracketing’32, which uses a different paradigm to psychodynamic art psychotherapy. Therefore using the countertransference to reflect on how the patient experience is

communicated does not feature as part of the IPA process, which makes this method unsuitable for this research.

3.8.3 Discourse Analysis

Willig (2008) considers language as a way of constructing reality through social discourse. Gee (2014, p. 46) provides a definition of discourse as,

32 _{See LeVasseur, (2003) who provides a good overview of the problems associated with the}

classical conception of ‘bracketing’ as a method of separating bias from being objective. LeVasseur develops a new conception of bracketing in the service of being curious.

“…ways of combining and integrating language, actions, interactions, ways of thinking, believing, valuing, and using various symbols, tools, and objects to enact a particular sort of socially recognizable identity”

This is relevant to this study as based on the literature review it is

hypothesised that the metaphor is co-constructed through discourse. However, the criticism of this type of research is that there is not a systematic method of analysing the intentions and communications that may be outside of the awareness of the

interviewee (Willig, 2001). Discourse analysis has limited scope to analyse features of metaphor that are understood as image based as well as the problem of identity being a developmental matter rather than based only on discourse.

3.8.4 Psycholinguistic Analysis

Psycholinguistic analysis draws data from studying the development and comprehension of language. Whilst most psycholinguists use experimental conditions to understand behaviours associated with language (for example see Fischler, 1977), there are some more recent methods, which encourage the researcher to be more reflexive (Schmitt, 2000, 2003, 2005). Additionally, the analysis of language in terms of its form and types of metaphor is essential to defining criteria of the CRM in verbal language. The psycholinguistic model investigates the mapping process drawn from cognitive science. The mapping process usually depends upon pre-determined definition of metaphor, with specific criteria that can be observed in practice. Cognitive methods of interpreting experience similar to the process of metaphor

development, that of mapping a source domain to a target domain. As Hummel and Hollyoak (1997, p. 427) state,

“Reasoning, problem solving, and learning (as well as language and vision) depend on a capacity to code and manipulate relational knowledge, with complex structures emerging from the systematic recombination of more primitive elements.”

In other words, Hummel and Hollyoak focus on how we can name the subject and agree on a certain number of statements, based on the cognitive appraisal of the convergence of ‘primitive elements’. The detailed linguistic analysis of what the transcript tells us about metaphor is important to the process of mapping the metaphor domains; a cognitive approach tells us about the elements that we might predict as shared through language. As a first phase of enquiry, this seems a valuable approach in order to map the qualitative terrain of the patient experience, before the therapist’s experience is taken into account. Visual mapping tools have also been developed by and Veale and Keane (1995, 1992), which are based on a cognitive method of inquiry.