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18 countries, students at non- universities have on average higher monthly expenses for fees than their peers at universities

than one third of Bachelor students pay fees. In the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Czech Republic, it is less than a tenth of Bachelor students.

In all countries, Bachelor students who are paying fees can be divided into two groups of students: those who receive public support and those who do not. In most countries, it is common for a majority of fee-paying Bachelor students to not receive public sup- port. This applies to 16 out of 21 countries.

In Switzerland, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Italy, Croatia, Slovakia, Serbia, Austria, and the Czech Republic, the share of non-recipients of public support among fee-paying Bachelor students is particularly high (if the number of fee-paying Bachelor students is set at 100 %, more than 80 % of these students do not receive public support in the respective countries).

By contrast, there are four countries – namely Armenia, Latvia, Montenegro, and Malta – in which the majority of Bachelor students liable to fees receive public sup- port at the same time. In Latvia, this applies to more than 80 % of fee-paying Bach- elor students.

Differences in fees can be linked to the type of HEI. In the following, average pay- ments of students and their families/partners for fees are analysed, using the type of

HEI – university vs. non-university – as main criterion for distinction (Figure 8.7). Only those countries with available data for both types of HEIs have been taken into account. Figure 8.7 displays for each country the average fee-differential between students at non-universities and at universities. For calculation of the differential, the average monthly amount of fees of students at universities was set at 100 % and the relative difference to the average monthly amount of fees of students at non-universities was calculated.

Two groups of countries can be distinguished. In half of the countries (nine out of 18 countries), students at non-universities pay higher fees than their fellow students at universities.

In Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Poland, and Hungary, the average expense for fees paid by students at non-universities is at least twice as high as for students at universities. In Latvia, Switzerland, Serbia, and the Czech Republic, the difference varies between

13 % and 93 %.

In Finland, students in neither of the two types of HEIs are charged with fees. In the group of countries comprising the Netherlands, Lithuania, Ireland, Estonia,

Denmark, Armenia, Russia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, students at non-universities have on average lower payments than their counterparts at universities. In the last three countries, average expenses for fees of students at non-universities are less than half as high than that of their peers at universities.

The data displayed in Figure 8.6 present a mixed picture. There is no unequivocal divide in the sense that average payments for fees are higher at one or the other type of HEIs in all countries. On the one hand, the level of fees charged by a HEI can be subject to various determinants, such as the institution’s production costs (especially the costs of instruction), the availability of other funding sources (e.g. public funds, donations, and third-party funds), state regulations, the HEI’s fundamental principle of action

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Data source: EUROSTUDENT V, F.2. No data: DE, FR, IT, NO, UA; students at non-universities: GE, ME, RO, SE, SK. Too few cases: Students at non-universities: MT. EUROSTUDENT question(s): 3.7 What are your average expenses for the following items during the current semester?

Notes: Values for fees of students at universities were set at 100 % to calculate the difference for fees of students at non-universities. In Romania, non-universities do not exist.

Deviations from EUROSTUDENT survey conventions: IT, NO.

Deviations from EUROSTUDENT standard target group: DE, GE, IT.

Figure 8.6

Fees to higher education institutions by type of higher education institution – students not living with parents Comparison of monthly fees paid by students and parents/partner/others to universities and non-universities

300

200

100

0

–100

Difference between average fees in %

AT SI HR PL HU LV CH RS CZ FI NL LT IE EE DK AM RU BA 210 142 123 120 107 ₉₃ 45 22 ₁₃ 0 –1 _–6 –32 –34 _–42 –51 _–61 –77

(fulfilment of demand vs. realisation of profits) and its individual price policy. This may result in different levels of fees between universities and non-universities.

On the other hand, it may be that the level of fees at the two types of HEIs is the same, but there are differences in the shares of students who pay fees.

In Austria, universities and universities of applied sciences (= non-universities) both may charge fees of € 363 per semester. But while universities charge only students who exceed the maximum study duration for more than a year, universities of applied sciences charge larger parts of their students. In addition, these institutions are entitled to charge cost-covering fees from international students, which are usually higher than € 363 per semester (Eurydice, 2014).

In Slovenia and Poland, part-time students have to pay tuition fees (Eurydice, 2014). Their share at non-universities is markedly higher than at universities (in Slovenia: 35 % vs. 7 %; in Poland: 55 % vs. 20 %) ( Chapter 5).

In Ireland, full-time EU-students in the first cycle are exempt from full tuition fees, if they meet the terms of the so-called “free fees scheme”. The majority of students in the second cycle, however, pay tuition fees (Eurydice, 2014). According to the

EUROSTUDENT data, the share of Master students (= second cycle) at universities is clearly higher than at non-universities (19 % vs. 10 %, DRM) which could explain the lower average expenses for fees of students at non-universities.

In Estonia, study fees are generally regulated by the government. Fees are not regu- lated, however, for part-time studies (Eurydice, 2014), which means part-time stu- dents can be subject to higher fees. The share of part-time students at universities is higher than at non-universities (10 % vs. 8 %, DRM), which could explain at least some part of the deviation of the average expenses for fees.

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In 10 countries, more than a third of students report to have (very) serious financial difficulties

Students’ assessment of their financial situation

Although the EUROSTUDENT data set contains plenty of data on students’ income and expenditures, it is not so easy to reflect upon students’ material well-being. This is, inter alia, because no direct comparison of an individual students’ income and expendi- tures can be performed on basis of aggregate data. This deficiency is counterbalanced, however, by provision of students’ self-reported data on their financial situation. As part of the EUROSTUDENT survey, students were asked to what extent they currently experience financial difficulties. The respective answer scale contained five response options, ranging from “very seriously” to “not at all”. The following figure displays all students’ assessment of their financial situation (Figure 8.7).

On cross-country average, 19 % of students report to have serious current financial difficulties and another 11 % even state very serious difficulties. By contrast, 22 % of students report only slight financial difficulties and 18 % no difficulties at all.

In 10 countries, more than a third of students report to have either serious or very serious financial difficulties. This applies to Slovenia, Norway, Georgia, Ireland, Denmark, Croatia, Lithuania, Romania, Poland, and Montenegro.

Most of the countries in this group – except Norway, Ireland, and Denmark – would not be considered as being wealthy in terms of the GDP per capita. Accordingly, the total in- come of students in those countries is below the average of the EUROSTUDENT countries

( Chapter 7). Further, the income source with the single highest share in total income

in these countries is either provisions from family/partner or students’ self-earned income. This may indicate that students and their families/partners cannot provide sufficient means to keep large parts of the student body from encountering financial Data source: EUROSTUDENT V, F.6.

EUROSTUDENT question(s): 3.8 To what extent are you currently experiencing financial difficulties?

Deviations from EUROSTUDENT survey conventions: DE, NO.

Deviations from EUROSTUDENT standard target group: DE, GE, IT.

Figure 8.7

Students’ assessment of their financial situation Extent of current financial difficulties of all students 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Students in % SI NO GE IE DK HR AM LT RO PL FI ME LV RS BA AT SE EE HU UA MT FR SK IT RU DE CH CZ NL 24 21 20 18 18 17 16 15 14 14 12 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 8 7 6 5 4 4 4 4 3 8 16 5 8 15 14 18 13 8 11 16 6 11 9 19 30 33 17 15 9 12 27 12 15 20 45 30 25 39

very serious serious moderate slight not at all 16 17 12 ₁₄ 23 17 20 18 19 19 26 18 23 19 18 18 19 23 25 25 ₂₆ 20 22 53 29 25 26 32 22 24 22 20 33 18 21 _{15 24 25 23} 16 25 20 21 15 19 16 18 19 19 21 17 19 19 12 9 13 10 14 28 24 43 27 26 31 31 30 34 33 30 40 35 41 37 23 22 32 32 38 33 29 41 8 35 ₁₇ 27 29 22

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difficulties. It seems a bit surprising, however, to find Denmark and Norway8 in this group of countries. In both countries, the level of students’ total income is above aver- age of the EUROSTUDENT countries for various student groups. Both countries make use of public support schemes that i) reach large parts of the student population and ii) provide large shares of students’ total income ( Chapter 7). These facts seem to point to advantageous systems from the students’ perspective. Nevertheless, it seems that notice- able parts of the student populations currently experience financial problems. A more in-depth analysis on national level seems necessary to expose the causes for these results. With respect to students’ basic type of housing, it might be expected that those who live away from their parents report higher shares with (very) serious financial difficul- ties than those who live in their parental home. Indeed, in 20 out of 29 countries, higher shares of those with (very) serious financial difficulties are found among stu- dents not living with parents. The differences between the two student groups are quite pronounced, with at least seven percentage points difference, in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Finland, Italy, Malta, and the Netherlands. In nine countries, higher shares of students living with parents report (very) serious financial difficulties. The largest differences between the two student groups are found in Armenia (35 percentage points), Denmark (15 percentage points), and Georgia (12 percentage points) ( DRM).

8 The phrasing of the respective question and response options in the Norwegian questionnaire deviates from the EUROSTUDENT

core questionnaire (see Notes on national surveys). This should be kept in mind when assessing the data.

Data source: EUROSTUDENT V, F.9. No data: RU; students dependent on public support: GE, PL. Too few cases: Students dependent on own earnings: AM; students dependent on public support: AM, BA, CZ, HR, ME, MT, RS.

EUROSTUDENT question(s): 3.8 To what extent are you currently experiencing financial difficulties?

Notes: Values above the country abbreviations present the percentage for students dependent on family support. For Lithuania the values for “dependent on own earnings” and “dependent on public support” are almost identical. Therefore, only one icon can be viewed in the figure.

Deviations from EUROSTUDENT survey conventions: DE, IT, NO.

Deviations from EUROSTUDENT standard target group: DE, GE, IT.

Figure 8.8

Students’ assessment of their financial situation by finance-related characteristics – students not living with parents Students with (very) serious current financial difficulties

Students in %

dependent on family support dependent on own earnings dependent on public support

IE RO SI GE NO LT HR SE ME PL FI DK LV EE RS BA IT AT UA HU SK MT AM FR NL CH CZ DE 51 43 43 39 39 37 36 34 34 33 33 32 32 31 29 28 28 27 26 26 26 22 22 20 18 15 12 9 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

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