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I I

As we noted in Chapter 1, this book does not consider those aspects of research design and methodology which are specific to each discipline, and even to each topic within a discipline. To explore those issues, you will need the appropriate textbooks and handbooks for your subject. The cur- rent issues of journals in your field will show demonstrations of state-of- the-art methodological practices relevant to your work.

Here we discuss some general background philosophical issues con- cerned with the practice of research relevant to all disciplines. We start with the basic question: What is research? This is not as simple a question as it seems. We are going to explore some answers to it and examine their relevance to the nature of a PhD.

I Characteristics of research

Let us start with a lay view: ‘Research is finding out something you don’t know.’ This answer is both too wide and too narrow. It is too wide because it includes many activities, such as finding out the time of the next train to London, or taking the temperature of the water in the swimming pool, which we would not characterize as research. Take a moment to consider why we would not do so. And if we were measuring instead the pH value of the water – its acidity or alkalinity – would that be research?

As well as being too wide, that definition is also too narrow, because a lot of research is concerned not with finding out something you don’t know but with finding that you don’t know something. This sort of research

aims to reorientate our thinking, to make us question what we think we do know, and to focus on new aspects of our complex reality.

In exploring the nature of research, it is useful to distinguish it from another activity: intelligence-gathering.

I Intelligence-gathering – the ‘what’ questions

There are a lot of things that we don’t know and that we could find out. What are the age, sex and subject distributions of doctoral students in British higher education? What are the radiation levels in different parts of the UK? What percentage of Britain’s GNP is spent on scientific research? These ‘what’ questions are very important. They require careful definition of terms, unbiased collection of information, meticulous statistical treatment and careful summarizing to get a balanced description of the situation that gives ‘a true and fair picture’, to use a phrase from the accounting profession. Inevitably some arbitrary decisions will have to be made. Conventions are developed that can help to improve comparability – in the measurement of high temperatures, the definition of the money supply, the genetic classification into male and female sexes, etc. – but professionals can and do differ on what they regard as fair, and informed judgement is called for. For example, it is a matter of considerable contro- versy at present as to what would be a true and fair way to define, and therefore count and categorize, the number of bureaucrats employed in government, the climatic effects on the atmosphere of global warming, and so on.

Since this work is descriptive, answering the ‘what’ questions, it can be considered as ‘intelligence-gathering’ – using the term in the military sense. Intelligence-gathering is an important activity and intelligence is a valued commodity. A profit-and-loss account of a business, a map giving radiation levels in different parts of the country, a compilation of the evaluations by doctoral students of the quality of supervision they receive, are all examples of intelligence with important uses.

We may use the profit-and-loss account as part of a financial control system, the radiation-level map to develop nuclear siting policies, the doc- toral students’ evaluations to make decisions on selection and training of supervisors, etc. Control mechanisms, policy formulation and decision- making are the typical uses of intelligence. These are all absolutely vital activities – but they are not research.

I Research – the ‘why’ questions

Research goes beyond description and requires analysis. It looks for explanations, relationships, comparisons, predictions, generalizations and theories. These are the ‘why’ questions. Why are there so many fewer women doctoral students in physics than in biology? Why are the radi- ation levels different in different geographical areas? Why is the product- ivity per worker-hour in British manufacturing industry less that that of France or Germany?

All these questions require good intelligence-gathering, just as decision- making and policy formulation do. But the information is used for the purpose of developing understanding – by comparison, by relating to other factors, by theorizing and testing the theories. All research questions have comparisons in them, as the words ‘fewer’, ‘different’ and ‘less’ in the examples above illustrate. All research questions also involve generaliza- tion. To be useful, explanations should be applicable in all appropriate situations. These are the focus of PhD study.

I Characteristics of good research

There are three distinct but interrelated characteristics of good research which distinguish this activity from others such as intelligence-gathering, decision-making and so on.

Research is based on an open system of thought

For you as a researcher, the world is in principle your oyster. You are entitled to think anything. There are no hidden agendas, no closed sys- tems; in American terms ‘everything is up for grabs’. This continual test- ing, review and criticism for its own sake by researchers of each other’s work is an important way in which thinking develops. Conventional wis- dom and accepted doctrine are not spared this examination because they may turn out to be inadequate. Of course they may not turn out to be inadequate; they may stand up to examination. This is why non- researchers often regard research results as being demonstrations of the obvious or trivial elaborations of established knowledge. This examin- ation, however, has to be done continually because this is how we probe for what is not obvious and discover elaborations that are not trivial. The key to the approach is to keep firmly in mind that the classic position of a researcher is not that of one who knows the right answers but of one who is struggling to find out what the right questions might be!

Researchers examine data critically

This characteristic of research is clearly part of the first one. We list it separately because it is probably the most important single element in distinguishing a research approach from others and researchers from prac- titioners and laypeople. Researchers examine data and the sources of data critically so that the basic research approach to provocative statements (‘women make less effective managers than men’; ‘soft drugs are less harmful to health than alcohol’; ‘renewable energy sources cannot pro- vide for all our needs in the foreseeable future’) is not to agree or disagree but to ask: ‘What is your evidence?’

Researchers are continually having to ask: Have you got the facts right? Can we get better data? Can the results be interpreted differently? Non- researchers often feel that they don’t have the time for this and are thus impatient with research. Politicians and managers, for example, often need to make decisions under constraints of public pressure or time. Their need to act is more important than their need to understand. Researchers’ priorities are of course different. They have to go to great trouble to get systematic, valid and reliable data because their aim is to understand and interpret.

Researchers generalize and specify the limits on their generalizations

It is the aim of research to obtain valid generalizations because this is the most efficient way of applying understanding in a wide variety of appropriate situations, but there are difficulties here. It was not a researcher but a novelist, Alexandre Dumas fils, who said: ‘All generaliza- tions are dangerous – including this one!’ Indeed, research may be said to proceed by insightful but dangerous generalizations, which is why the limits of the generalization – where it applies and where it does not apply – must be continually tested.

The way generalizations can best be established is through the devel- opment of explanatory theory, and it is indeed the application of theory that turns intelligence-gathering into research. So to return to the ques- tion asked at the beginning of this chapter: would measuring the pH value of the water in a swimming pool be research? The answer would depend upon what we were going to do with the result, not on how complicated or how ‘scientific’ the measurement was. If the result were used to develop and test a theory of the factors that determine the acidity of water, it would be research; if it were used to make a decision on whether the pool was safe according to established criteria, then it would be intelligence- gathering.

I Hypothetico–deductive method

So the examination of the adequacy of generalizations, formulated as hypotheses, is the cornerstone of research. ‘Hypotheses,’ said Medawar in 1964, ‘are imaginative and inspirational in character’; they are ‘adventures of the mind’. He was arguing in favour of the position taken by Karl Pop- per in The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1972, 3rd edn.) that the nature of scientific method is hypothetico–deductive and not, as is generally believed, inductive.

It is essential that you, as an intending researcher, understand the differ- ence between these two interpretations of the research process so that you do not become discouraged or begin to suffer from a feeling of ‘cheating’ or not going about it the right way.

A popular misconception about scientific method is that it is inductive: that the formulation of scientific theory starts with the basic, raw evidence of the senses – simple, unbiased, unprejudiced observation. Out of these sensory data – commonly referred to as ‘facts’ – generalizations will form. The myth is that from a disorderly array of factual information an orderly, relevant theory will somehow emerge. However, the starting point of induction is an impossible one.

There is no such thing as unbiased observation. Every act of observation we make is a function of what we have seen or otherwise experienced in the past. All scientific work of an experimental or exploratory nature starts with some expectation about the outcome. This expectation is a hypothesis. Hypotheses provide the initiative and incentive for the inquiry and influence the method. It is in the light of an expectation that some observations are held to be relevant and some irrelevant, that one methodology is chosen and others discarded, that some experiments are conducted and others are not. Where is your naive, pure and objective researcher now?

Hypotheses arise by guesswork or by inspiration, but having been for- mulated they can and must be tested rigorously, using the appropriate methodology. If the predictions you make as a result of deducing certain consequences from your hypothesis are not shown to be correct then you must discard or modify your hypothesis. If the predictions turn out to be correct then your hypothesis has been supported and may be retained until such time as some further test shows it not to be correct. Once you have arrived at your hypothesis, which is a product of your imagination, you then proceed to a strictly logical and rigorous process, based upon deductive argument – hence the term ‘hypothetico–deductive’.

So don’t worry if you have some idea of what your results will tell you before you even begin to collect data; there are no scientists in existence who really wait until they have all the evidence in front of them before they try to work out what it might possibly mean. The closest we ever get

to this situation is when something happens serendipitously; but even then the researcher has to formulate a hypothesis to be tested before being sure that, for example, a mould might prove to be a successful antidote to bacterial infection.

Another erroneous idea about scientific method is not only that it is inductive (which we have seen is incorrect) but also that the hypothetico– deductive method proceeds in a step-by-step, inevitable fashion. The hypothetico–deductive method describes the logical approach to much research work, but it does not describe the psychological behaviour that brings it about. This is much more holistic – involving guesses, rework- ings, corrections, blind alleys and above all inspiration, in the deductive as well as the hypothetic component – than is immediately apparent from reading the final thesis or published papers. These have been, quite properly, organized into a more serial, logical order so that the worth of the output may be evaluated independently of the behavioural process by which it was obtained. It is the difference, for example, between the academic papers with which Crick and Watson demonstrated the struc- ture of the DNA molecule (e.g. Watson and Crick 1953) and the fascinat- ing book The Double Helix in which Watson (1968) described how they did it. From this point of view, ‘scientific method’ may more usefully be thought of as a way of writing up research rather than as a way of carrying it out.

I Basic types of research

Research has traditionally been classified into two types: pure and applied. We find this distinction – implying as it does that pure research supplies the theories and applied research uses and tests them out in the real world – is too rigid to characterize what happens in most academic disciplines, where, for example, ‘real-world’ research generates its own theories and does not just apply ‘pure’ theories. We shall consider a threefold classifica- tion of research: exploratory, testing-out and problem-solving, which applies to both quantitative and qualitative research.

Exploratory research

This is the type of research that is involved in tackling a new problem/ issue/topic about which little is known, so the research idea cannot at the beginning be formulated very well. The problem may come from any part of the discipline; it may be a theoretical research puzzle or have an empir- ical basis. The research work will need to examine what theories and con- cepts are appropriate, developing new ones if necessary, and whether existing methodologies can be used. It obviously involves pushing out

the frontiers of knowledge in the hope that something useful will be discovered.

Testing-out research

In this type of research we are trying to find the limits of previously pro- posed generalizations. As we have discussed above, this is a basic research activity. Does the theory apply at high temperatures? In new technology industries? With working-class parents? Before universal franchise was introduced? The amount of testing out to be done is endless and continu- ous, because in this way we are able to improve (by specifying, modifying, clarifying) the important, but dangerous, generalizations by which our discipline develops.

Problem-solving research

In this type of research, we start from a particular problem in the real world, and bring together all the intellectual resources that can be brought to bear on its solution. The problem has to be defined and the method of solution has to be discovered. The person working in this way may have to create and identify original problem solutions every step of the way. This will usually involve a variety of theories and methods, often ranging across more than one discipline since real-world problems are likely to be ‘messy’ and not soluble within the narrow confines of an academic discipline.

I Which type of research for the PhD?

Since we spent so much time in Chapter 4 discussing how not to get a PhD, let us now look on the more positive side and ask how to get a doctorate. Consider for a moment the three types of research that we have just reviewed. Which type is likely to offer the best chance of completing the degree successfully? Remember that we have already noted that the PhD is primarily a research training exercise to get you from being a mere beginner in research to the level of a full professional. All research involves working within particular constraints, but those of a PhD are very strin- gent. They include clear limitations on finance, physical resources, administrative back-up and, above all, time. So which of the three types of research would you choose as the best route at this stage of your career? Take a few moments to consider your decision and the reasons for it.

We hope that you will understand why it seems very obvious to us that the appropriate route is that of testing-out research. With this approach you will be working within an established framework and thus learning

the craft of doing research in an environment that gives you some degree of protection by the established nature of much of the ideas, arguments, measuring equipment, etc. A degree of protection in the environment is the best situation for efficient learning: being thrown in at the deep end is all very heroic but it does tend to induce a phenomenon known as drowning!

Of course, you will have to make your original contribution – merely replicating what others have done is not adequate. So, for example, you will have to use a methodology on a new topic where it has not been applied before and therefore make manifest its strengths in giving new knowledge and theoretical insights. Or you will have to apply two compet- ing theories to a new situation to see which is more powerful, or design a crucial experiment to produce evidence to choose between them. As a result you may produce your own innovative variant of the methodology or theory. There will always be an appropriate element of exploratory work and you may well solve some useful discipline-based problems on the way. Testing out is the basic ongoing professional task of academic research, and doctoral work done well in this framework is much more likely to be useful, and thus publishable and quotable.

On the other hand, the idea of tackling an exploratory topic which has little by way of conceptual frameworks seems very attractive. Potential employers give considerable weight to the ‘real-world applicability’ of the