La opinión de los padres de familia y sus demandas

The basic assumption of problem solving is that an organisation is a problem to be solved. In contrast the underlying assumption in AI is that an organisation is a solution to be embraced rather than a problem to be solved (Cooperrider, Whitney &

Stravros 2008:5). Cooperrider’s experience from his doctoral work with AI in

Cleveland clinic in 1987 led to the proposal of AI as an alternative methodology for organisational improvement. Cooperrider identified fault with the problem solving focus that was usually related with deficiency mode of thought by directing the focus

on restoring the status quo to organisations rather than generating theories for new ideas and actions for positive change. In addition Norum, Wells, Hoadley and Geary (2002:10) as supported by van Buskirk (2002:67) concur with the notion that “the difference in using the AI approach is that instead of dwelling on the “problem” the conversation focuses on suggestions for what could be done about the problem by creating generative possibilities. Furthermore, Bushe and Kassam (2005:3) agree with the previous authors that AI emphasises the creation of new knowledge within the organisation that compels new action.

Ashford and Patkar (2001:4) state that a common underlying assumption of the problem-solving approach is that organisations are best served by identifying and removing their deficits,in contrast, Appreciative Inquiry argues that organisations improve more effectively through discovery and valuing, envisioning, dialogue and co-constructing the future. Drucker (2006:18) is of the opinion that the task of leadership in an organisation is to create an alignment of strengths in ways that make the system’s weakness irrelevant. It his is noteworthy that Messerschmidt (2008:455) supports this opinion in his idea that Appreciative Inquiry approach seek to turn problems into their positive opposites by focusing attention on the exceptions

to the problems and building upon exceptional successes. In the same vein, Michael

(2005:223) affirms the idea on the note that when using AI, the best positive option is chosen as a starting point from which to work for the success of the organisation or programme. It is reasonable, then, that Egan and Lancaster (2005:30) argue that traditional problem solving approach limits the opportunities for organisations to be successful because it reinforces the existing beliefs instead of addressing the possibilities for the creation of new beliefs”. In Table 2.1. A summary of the comparison between problem solving and Appreciative Inquiry process is provided.

Table 2.1: Comparison of problem solving and Appreciative Inquiry process

Problem solving Appreciative inquiry

"Felt need"

Identification of Problem

Appreciating and valuing the best of "what is"

Analysis of causes Envisioning "what might be" Analysis of possible solutions Dialoguing "What should be" Action planning (treatment) Innovating "What will be Basic Assumption: An organisation is a problem

to be solved.

Basic Assumption: An organisation is a mystery to be embraced.

Source: Adapted from Cooperrider et al (2008:16)

The information given in the Table 2.1 gives a brief discussion on the emphasis of Appreciative Inquiry utilisation in organisations as compared to problem solving strategies. AI is an approach to positive organisational change based on assumptions that organisations are creative centers of human relatedness and unlimited emergent capacity to respond to reality (Cooperrider et al 2008:17).

2.6.4 Principles

Couglan et al (2003:6) argue that AI is both a philosophy and a worldview, with particular principles and assumptions and structured set of core processes and practices for engaging people in identifying and co-creating an organisation or programmes’ future. Appreciative Inquiry is based on the core principles and assumptions that inspired and moved the foundation of AI from theory to practice (Cooperrider et al. 2005:8).The principles for appreciative Inquiry were born out of theories and related studies (Preskill and Catsambas 2006:11). The five basic principles include (a) constructionist principle, (b) simultaneity principle, (c) the anticipatory principle, (d) the poetic principle and (e) the positive principle. To reinforce these principles, Preskill and Catsambas (2006:9) subsequently added three more. The additional principles are: (f) the wholeness principle, (g) the enactment principle and (h) the free choice principle. Barret and Fry (2005:49) brought principle called (i) the narrative principle whilst Stavros and Torres (2005:79) came with (j) the awareness principle. A summary of the eleven principles of AI is reflected in Table 2.2.

Table 2.1: Summary of the principles of Appreciative Inquiry

Principle Definition

Constructionist principle The constructionist principle argues that an organisation’s reality is constructed by the questions people ask. How knowledge is generated in the organisation will determine its future

Principle of simultaneity The principle of simultaneity recognizes that inquiry and change cannot be kept separate but occurs simultaneously. The moment questions are articulated change is initiated. Dialogue shapes images of the future which then form into reality

Poetic principle The poetic principle states that organisations are like open books, their stories being constantly co-authored by their members. The choice of topic for a story can alter the organisation; stories about success will lead to a different organisation than stories about failure

Anticipatory principle The anticipatory principle views collective imagination and discourse as the most important source for generating constructive organisational change. By changing the image of the future, the future will be changed.

Positive principle The positive principle states that the more positive a change initiative is framed, the more effective and long lasting it will be. Humans are responsive to hope, inspiration, positive stories and bonding with other people. Positive images lead to positive change Positive questions lead to positive change. The momentum for change requires positive affect and social bonding. The change momentum is best generated through positive questions that amplify the positive core.

Wholeness principle The Wholeness brings out the best in people and organisations. Bringing the stakeholders together in a large group forum stimulates creativity and builds collective capacity.

Enactment principle Acting “as if” is self-fulfilling

To make change we must “be the change we want to see”. Positive change occurs when the process used to create the change is a living model of the ideal future

Free choice principle Free choice liberates power.

People perform better and more committed when they have freedom to choose how and what they contribute.

Free choice stimulates organisational excellence and positive change Narrative principle Narratives are stories constructed from collective individuals’ lives. Barrett

and Fry further believe that stories are transformational. People Construct stories about their past life experiences which can be used to shape the future.

Principle Definition

Awareness principle Understanding and being aware of our underlying assumptions are important to developing and cultivating good relationships.

Practicing cycles of action and reflection can build one’s self-awareness.

Adapted from Whitney and Trostem-Bloom (2003:54-55) and Cooperrider, Whitney and Stavros (2003: 8-9)