Experiences around the world show that there is a socio-economic rationale for developing countries to strongly support tourism as a key player in national development. In general, according to Jenkins (1997), tourism has a historical record of being a growth sector helping developing countries to: (i) earn foreign exchange (because the majority of international tourists come from developed countries with “hard” currencies); (ii) create jobs to meet their paramount employment needs (because tourism is a service industry with high demands for labour); (iii) generate regional economic development; (iv) generate both personal and business incomes; and (v) contribute to government revenues through taxation. Tourism growth is considered the fastest way for economic development to occur in developing countries because of the absence of tariff barriers which some other sectors face, the relatively low investment required, and the growing trend to travel as a matter of lifestyle.
2.3.1. Tourism
Tourism is a social, cultural and economic phenomenon which entails the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal or business/professional purposes. These people are called visitors (which may be either tourists or excursionists; residents or non-residents) and tourism has to do with their activities, some of which imply tourism expenditure (UNWTO).
Tourism is part of a modern lifestyle, in which geographical mobility and cultural enjoyment are critical parameters. At the same time, tourism is also a lead sector for accelerated economic growth in many countries and regions. Consequently, tourism policy has become an important vehicle of sustainable economic policy in both the developed and developing world (Girard &
Nijkamp, 2009, p.1).
As such, tourism has implications on the economy, on the natural and built environment, on the local population at the destination and on the tourists themselves. Due to these multiple impacts, the wide range and variety of production factors required producing those goods and services acquired by visitors, and the wide spectrum of stakeholders involved or affected by tourism, there is a need for a holistic approach to tourism development, management and monitoring. This approach is strongly recommended in order to formulate and implement national and local tourism policies as well as the necessary international agreements or other processes in respect of tourism (UNWTO).
Tourism and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): According to the UNWTO, tourism is committed to fostering the sector‟s contribution to the MDGs by promoting the development of responsible, sustainable and universally accessible tourism. Tourism, one of the world‟s top job creators and a lead export sector, especially for developing countries, can play a significant role in the achievement of MDGs 1 – eradication of poverty, MDG 3 – gender equality, MDG 7 – environmental sustainability and MDG 8 – global partnerships for development.
2.3.2. The Impact of Tourism
The spectacular growth of tourism has brought to the attention of policy makers its potential as an engine for stimulating economic growth and development. Tourism has multiple linkages with a wide range of other economic sectors and activities, and thus it has a potential to act as a catalyst for economic development due to its multiplier effects. On a national level, tourism contributes to the balance of payments, but also provides investments and employments for construction, transport, trade and so on. On a regional/local level, tourism offers opportunities for employment and income, spurring regional and local economic development. Tourism often offers unique prospects for some small and remote places which may lack other economic development opportunities. For many destinations, the presence of tourism provides opportunities to improve infrastructure and services, such as transport and banking, which benefits local society as well (Girard & Nijkamp, 2009, p.49).
The development of tourism may have positive impacts on cultural heritages, directly and indirectly. Because of tourism and its positive economic and further benefits, special consideration is given to cultural heritages as a resource for tourism, extending the basis for its protection beyond its own symbolic social merits or “ethical values”. Bringing new attention to cultural heritage through tourism may bring changes to local values as well, contributing to positive social attitudes and rising public transport to safeguard cultural heritage, to protect and enhance it, sometimes reviving faded and abandoned elements and bringing culture to the forefront of public agendas. As a result of tourists‟ interest in culture and heritage, local societies also gain benefit, strengthening their sense of local identity (Girard & Nijkamp, 2009, p.49). However, tourism may also have significant negative impacts on cultural heritage. The wear and tear on monuments by visitors (physical impacts), noise, pollution and waste (environmental impacts), congestion, rising costs of services, land-use change and competition (economic effects) and commercialisation of culture, loss of tradition and other
(social-culture) effects are often quoted as evidence of the negative impacts from tourism (Swarbrooke 1999; Mathieson & Wall 1982).
The impacts of tourism are multidimensional, economic, social and environmental, direct and indirect, positive and negative. Tourism may affect demographic characteristics, social structures and relations, economic activities and sectorial dynamics, social values and attitudes, culture and lifestyles, built environment and land use, environmental resources, natural ecosystems and cultural heritage (Girard & Nijkamp, 2009, p.49).
2.3.3. Types of Tourismiii
Business Tourism can be defined as “travel for the purpose of business”. Business tourism can be divided into three sections: trading for goods to be resold on a wholesale basis; conduct business transactions e.g. visiting a client, contract negotiations; attending a conference, exhibition or event associated with their business.
Medical Tourism involves people who travel to a different place to receive treatment for a disease, health condition, or a surgical procedure, and who are seeking lower cost for healthcare and higher quality of care. Favourite procedures in medical tourism include Cardiology, Cardiothoracic, Cosmetic Surgery, Plastic and Reconstruction Surgery, Weight Loss, Neuron, Eye, Orthopaedic Surgery, as well as Organ Transplants (kidney).
Cultural Tourism or sometimes referred to as heritage tourism is the division of tourism concerned with the region‟s culture, specifically the lifestyle and history of the people, their art, architecture, religion and other elements. Cultural tourism includes cultural facilities such as museums, theatres and festivals. This is one of the most popular types of tourism and attracts tourists from different parts of the world.
Adventure Tourism is an outdoor activity that generally takes place in an unusual, remote or a wilderness area. This adventurous activity can take place in the sea, in rivers, in the air, in mountains and is associated with low or high levels of physical activity. There are many types of products and services that fall within the Adventure Tourism category such as: bungee jumping, mountaineering expeditions, rafting, rock climbing, diving, wind surfing, paragliding and many more.
Ecotourism is “Responsible travel to natural (unspoilt) areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people”. The purpose of ecotourism is to educate the traveller about natural destinations, to provide ecological conservation and awareness, to benefit economic development, the political empowerment of local communities and respect for the local culture. Here the traveller can experience the natural way of life surrounded by natural circumstances.
Religious Tourism or faith tourism are people of faith who travel on their own or in groups to holy cities or holy sites for pilgrimages, crusades, conventions, retreats, religious tourist attractions or missionary work.
iii http://www.medtiblog.org/2013/05/14/what-are-the-different-types-of-tourism/
Leisure Tourism can be defined as “free time”, not doing any work. It is that time to do things that you normally have no time for in your daily life. Leisure tourism includes a holiday with the following: leisure activities; relaxation: sleep, relax, reading, walk on the beach, taking a scenic drive;
sport activities: hiking, swimming, surfing, running; visit places of interest and local attractions; visiting friends and relatives; shopping for goods that will be used by the tourists.
Cultural Heritage Tourismiv (or just Heritage Tourism or Diaspora Tourism): heritage tourism as “travelling to experience the places and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past," and Cultural Heritage Tourism is defined as “travelling to experience the places and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past and present."
2.3.4. Tourism plans
Tourism plans usually aim to set policy and budget priorities for tourism infrastructure, marketing, investment incentives and other public sector interventions that affect overall growth of the sector (CHL Consulting, 2002; Crompton and Christie, 2003; Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 2004;
Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria et al, 2006; FIAS, 2006; Fries et al, 2006). To do this they draw on analyses of tourism demand (segments, trends, expenditures and sometimes very comprehensive tourist surveys), and of the strength and weaknesses of their current tourism supply (Mitchell & Asley, 2010, p.16).
2.3.5. Tourism Turnover
Tourism turnover is an indicator reflecting turnover from business activities of tourism business to satisfy the demands of tourists in a given time (including domestic and foreign tourists).
Turnover of tourism is calculated in VND and other currencies converted to VND. Turnover of all business activities of tourism includes: turnover of accommodation establishments and travel agencies. (Thua Thien Hue Statistical Office, 2012, p.251”.
2.3.6. Tourism Expenditure
Tourism Expenditure refers to the amount paid for the acquisition of consumption goods and services, as well as valuables, for own use or to give away, for and during tourism trips (UNWTO).
2.3.7. Visitor
A visitor is a traveller taking a trip to a main destination outside his/her usual environment, for less than a year, for any main purpose (business, leisure or other personal purpose) other than to be employed by a resident entity in the country or place visited. A visitor (domestic, inbound or outbound) is classified as a tourist (or overnight visitor), if his/her trip includes an overnight stay, or as a same-day visitor (or excursionist) otherwise (UNWTO). International visitor is a foreigner, Vietnamese residing abroad who come to Vietnam not more than 12 months with purposes such as visiting, relaxation, pilgrimage, visiting relatives and friends, looking for business and investment opportunities. Domestic visitor is Vietnamese citizen who leave their residential place not more than
ivThe National Trust for Historic Preservation in the United States
12 months to make visiting, pilgrimage, relaxation, visiting relatives and friends, doing business in the territory of Vietnam (Tran, Nam and Tran, Khang, 2001, p.21”).
2.3.8. Cultural Heritage Tourism (CHT)
The broadest definition is given Lord Cultural Resources Planning and Management, which refers to cultural tourism as “visits by persons from outside the host community motivated wholly or in part by interest in the historical, artistic, scientific or lifestyle/heritage offerings of a community, region, group or institutions” (Lord, 1999, p.2). Cultural Heritage Tourism is perceived as a particular component, which is “travelling to experience places and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past and presence. It includes historic, cultural and natural resources”
(National Trust 2006).
2.3.9. The Benefits of Cultural Heritage Tourism
Cultural Heritage Tourism can have a tremendous economic impact on local economies. To economic benefits like new businesses, jobs and higher property values, tourism adds less tangible-but equally important-payoffs. A well-managed tourism program improves the quality of life as residents take advantage of the services and attractions tourism adds. It promotes community pride, which grows as people work together to develop a thriving tourist industry. An area that develops its potential for Cultural Heritage Tourism creates new opportunities for tourists to gain an understanding of an unfamiliar place, people or time. With the arrival of visitors in turn come new opportunities for preservation. Well-interpreted sites teach visitors their importance, and by extension, the importance of preserving other such sites elsewhere. Perhaps the biggest benefit of Cultural Heritage Tourism is that opportunities increase for diversified economies, ways to prosper economically while holding on to the characteristics that make communities special (National Trust for Historic Preservation, 2011).
2.3.10. Heritage
Heritage is a social, economic and cultural resource. At the same time, it is a politicised and contested concept. Pressing questions on “whose heritage” seems to be brought to the forefront in our multicultural societies. If heritage is what we preserve from the past to inform our present, contemporary heritage cannot be but dissonant (Graham et al. 2000). Heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and what we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and natural heritages are both irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration. Places as unique and diverse as the wilds of East Africa‟s Serengeti, the Pyramids of Egypt, the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and the Baroque cathedrals of Latin America make up our World‟s heritage (UNESCO).
2.3.11. Cultural Heritage
The definition of cultural heritage can be quite controversial, per se. In broad terms, we could define cultural heritage as the record of human achievements and relationships with the world.
Therefore, it always has a local dimension, though sometimes it embeds universally shared values.
The concept of heritage is not given, but created by a community, by people who attach values to some objects, rites, languages, contexts, lifestyles, historic sites and monumental buildings. Labelling
something as heritage represents a value judgement which distinguishes that particular object from others, adding new meaning to it. Cultural heritage summarizes people‟s identities, and shapes communities‟ identities, and to this extent contributes to the creation of social capital. Many different cultural heritages can be identified, and this cultural diversity becomes a new form of capital embodied in artefacts both material (monuments, historic sites, cultural landscapes, and so on) and immaterial (languages, traditions, religions, and so on) (Girard & Nijkamp, 2009, p.57).
According to the Cultural Heritage Act 2002 (UNESCO), it defines „Cultural Heritage‟ as
“movable and immovable objects of artistic, architectural, historical, archaeological, ethnographic, paleontological and geological importance and includes information or data relative to cultural heritage pertaining to any other country. This includes archaeological, paleontological or geological sites and deposits, landscapes, groups of buildings, as well as scientific collections, collections of art objects, manuscripts, books, published material, archives, audio-visual material and reproductions of any of the preceding, or collections of historical value, as well as intangible cultural assets comprising arts, traditions, customs and skills employed in the performing arts, in applied arts and in crafts and other intangible assets which have a historical, artistic or ethnographic value.”
Definitions of Cultural Heritage from UNESCOv
Monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science. Groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; Sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and areas including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view (UNESCO: Article 1).
Natural features consisting of physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, which are of outstanding universal value from the aesthetic or scientific point of view;
Geological and physiographical formations and precisely delineated areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation; Natural sites or precisely delineated natural areas of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty (UNESCO, Article 2).
2.3.12. Types of Cultural Heritagesvi
Tangible cultural heritage consists of material products with historical, cultural or scientific value, including historical-cultural sites, scenic landscapes, relics, antiquities and national treasures.
vhttp://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext (Article 1 & 2)
vi http://www.unesco.org/culture/natlaws/media/pdf/vietnam/vn_law_cltal_heritage_engtof.pdf
Intangible cultural heritage consists of intellectual products with historical, cultural or scientific value that have been preserved by memory, writing, passed down through oral tradition, teaching, performance and all other means and forms. It includes language, writing, works of literature, art, science, oral tradition, folklore, ways of life, lifestyles, festivals, secrets of traditional handicrafts, knowledge of traditional medicine, cuisine, ethnic costumes and other forms of traditional knowledge.
Scenic landscapes are spots with natural beauty, or sites including both natural beauty and architectural monuments with historical, aesthetic or scientific value.
2.3.13. UNESCO World Heritage Site
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place (such as a forest, mountain, lake, desert, monument, building, complex, or city) that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance. The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Programme administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 states party which are elected by their General Assembly) (UNESCO).
2.3.14. Tourism in Danger
Armed conflict and war, earthquakes and other natural disasters, pollution, poaching, uncontrolled urbanization and unchecked tourist development pose majors problems to World Heritage sites. Dangers can be “ascertained”, reflecting to specific and proven imminent threats, or
“potential”, when a property is faced with threats which could have negative effects on its World Heritage values (UNWTO).
2.3.15. Primary and Secondary Attractions
A basic simplifying division of resources is the distinction between “primary”, i.e. resources which attract visitors and are the principal motive for the visit, and “secondary”, i.e. resources which support visitors during their stay (Ashworth & Tunbridge, 1990, p.58).
2.3.16. Accessibility
Accessibility is a function of distance from centers of population, which constitute tourist markets, and of external transport and communication, which enable a destination to be reached.
Accessibility provides another explanation of the importance of Britain and of much of Western Europe as tourist destinations, in contrast to the many attractive parts of Africa and Asia. (Burkart&
Medlik 1974).
2.3.17. Amenities
Amenities at the destination comprise accommodation, catering, entertainment, as well as internal transport and communications, which enable the tourist to move round during his stay. It is clear that amenities contribute much to many established resorts as tourist destinations, in contrast to areas which lack in particular adequate accommodation for visitors (Burkart & Medlik 1974).
2.3.18. Heritage Conservationvii
Heritage Conservation is certainly the one aspect of building culture that is most recognized by the public. Historic buildings are the pride of every community. It is not just the part they play in creating an emotional sense of “home” that makes them so important – they are increasingly regarded as stable factors in an ever-changing and uncertain world. Historic structures are a unique and essential part of a community‟s identity and attractiveness. Diverse measures are in place to ensure they are adequately protected.
Figure 2.1. Heritage Conservation: The Three-Pronged Approach
The Figure 2.1 above highlights the heritage conservation with three-pronged approach, namely participation and awareness building; documentation and preservation; institutional and policy environment. For participation and awareness-building, programmes and projects have to be set up by local governments that aim at redevelopment and regeneration of heritage areas, particularly old buildings and others of architectural value. This not only ensures that the buildings are economically viable, but also enhances the city's character. The role of NGOs and citizens groups is also critical in preservation activities, in generating ideas, in fostering civic pride, and in financial investment.
Participation and awareness-building is further enhanced by fairs, festivals and other events such as competitions. For documentation and preservation, it is critical to good documentation and preservation implemented by city government, is its integration into national organizations and programmes in heritage conservation. This ensures historical and cultural continuity, and enables a
Participation and awareness-building is further enhanced by fairs, festivals and other events such as competitions. For documentation and preservation, it is critical to good documentation and preservation implemented by city government, is its integration into national organizations and programmes in heritage conservation. This ensures historical and cultural continuity, and enables a