1 1 LOS ORÍGENES.

Since 1996, public provision for childcare has become more comprehensive and generous. This has been achieved in three main ways:

• By planning childcare: in Australia, a national planning system was implemented for all new long day care places; in Finland, a standard childcare fee was introduced between municipalities; in the UK, a national childcare strategy was launched with the aim of ensuring good quality, affordable childcare for children aged 0-14 and in the USA, funding was consolidated into a block grant providing basic funding level to all states, although it also increased state flexibility in subsidy design.

• By guaranteeing childcare for certain age groups: A childcare guarantee has been introduced for over twos in Denmark and over threes in Israel and is being extended from all employees to the unemployed in Sweden. The UK has introduced a free nursery school place (ie. at school) for children aged four. Germany has had a childcare guarantee for 3-6 year olds since 1996.

• By reducing the costs of childcare: Firstly, state subsidies have been introduced or increased in Austria, France and USA. Second, fees have been reduced in Sweden. Third, benefits have been introduced or significantly increased in France (AFAEMA: an income-related benefit for children under six in childminders was introduced). Fourth, tax credit relief for childcare charges have been introduced in Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the UK. A description of the various ways to reduce the costs of childcare is described below under current policy.

Australia and France have reduced certain childcare subsidies, although in France this was a subsidy largely aimed at rich working families. In Italy, charges have been flattened – the charge for higher- income families has been reduced whilst that for lower-income families has increased. Generally, childcare policy has mirrored the converging expectation of governments that mothers should work.

5.2.2

Current policy

Table 5.2 shows the proportion of children at different ages using the most prevalent full-time pre- school childcare. By childcare we mean the care provided to look after children whilst their parents are at work rather than ‘early education’ which prepares children for formal schooling. This includes childcare such as crèches or registered childminders but does not include nursery or reception classes in school. It also does not include informal childcare undertaken by friends or relatives within our definition. The most prevalent from of pre-school childcare refers to that which has the highest proportion of children age 0-4 attending compared to other forms of formal pre-school childcare.

80

Most national informants found it difficult to locate childcare figures to meet our exact age requirements and others were unable to find any figure at all for certain age groups.

In most countries in our study, data on childcare for children under three is particularly sparse. This is partly because of the high levels of private provision and informal arrangement for this age group and partly due to the regional/local responsibility for these services (OECD, 2001e). As a result, the figures in Table 5.1 are not directly comparable. In addition, some countries could not give an age breakdown (e.g. Australia). The proportion in childcare differs between age groups and therefore these figures may hide substantial variation between the under threes and three to four age groups.

Taking the above into account, Luxembourg, Netherlands and UK have the lowest proportions of under fives in childcare. In the under three age group, Belgium and Israel both have a high proportion in formal childcare, whereas Austria and Ireland have low proportions. Seventy-five per cent of children age three to four are in childcare in Belgium. Austria, Denmark, Germany and Israel have over 50 per cent of three to four year olds in childcare. France had 100 per cent attendance but this is in school rather than childcare per se.

81

Table 5.2

The proportions of pre-school children using the most

prevalent form of formal childcare

% of pre-school children using most prevalent childcare

Country Under 3 3-4 Australia (1999) .. 181 Austria (2000) 8 72 Belgium (1999) 41 75 Canada (1998) .. .. Denmark .. 562 Finland (1997) 16 413

France (2000) 17 (in school) 100

West Germany (2000) .. 603 Greece (2000) 3 46 Ireland 94 _.. Israel (1999) 415 ₆₈ Italy .. .. Japan .. .. Luxembourg (2000) .. 46 Netherlands (1999) .. 147

New Zealand (1999) 5 (under1) 36

14 (1-2 years) 22 (2-3 years) Norway (2000) .. 188 Portugal (1998) .. 10-12 Spain 21 .. Sweden .. (2000) 669 UK (1999) 11 13 USA 3110 ₄₅

1 _{under 5s, full-time and part-time} 2 _{3-5 year olds} 3 _{3-6 year olds} 4 _{2-3 year olds} 5 _{under 5s} 6 _{under 4s} 7 _{grades 1-4}

8 _{6-10 year olds in full time care in municipal day care centres only. Most private day care in regulated by the}

municipality, and receives the same subsidies: 52% of all children age 0-5 years are in day centres

9 _{1-5 year olds}

10_{0-2 year olds in child minder and informal care}

Formal childcare cannot be accessed if it is not readily available or affordable. Table 5.3 gives information on the pre-school childcare available for a child aged two years and 11 months – the age of the pre-school child in the model family matrix. The starting age of compulsory education has also been included in the table since this influences the duration and the nature of pre-school childcare. Five of the 22 countries in our study guarantee childcare for this age group (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Portugal and Sweden). Although not all municipalities in Denmark guarantee childcare, 86 per cent do and it is expected that within a few years all municipalities will be able to keep the ‘childcare promise’ – the childcare guarantee. We have therefore treated childcare there as guaranteed by the state.

82

Even though not all countries guarantee childcare for children as young as two years and 11 months, some do guarantee childcare for older pre-schoolers. Germany guarantees childcare for children from the age of three and Israel guarantees school for this age group. In the UK all four year olds have access to a free early education place (ie. at school). Three year olds in France and four year olds in the Netherlands can enter school but not for the whole week. Four year olds in New Zealand are also ‘guaranteed’ limited childcare in a kindergarten. Since 1992, in Greece, companies with more than 300 employees are obliged by law to set up and operate a childcare centre (with their own funds) for their employees, and in 1997 a law established that kindergartens (nurseries and primary schools) should open for longer hours to help working parents with very young children.

Of the 17 countries who do not guarantee childcare for children age two years and 11 months, seven (Australia, Austria, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Netherlands) give priority to lone parents. In Canada, this decision is made by the individual childcare centres; in the USA priority is given to low-income working parents when allocating childcare subsidies; in the Netherlands there is free childcare for lone parents with a paid job/in training and in Norway the decision is made by the individual nursery or by the municipality (for municipality kindergartens). Also there is a childcare benefit specifically for lone parents with children under ten.

83

Table 5.3

Pre-school childcare arrangements for a child aged 2 years and 11 months

Subsidies

Guarantee Priority Tax for

School Most prevalent f/t formal pattern for age 2yrs to lone State Income-related Other credit/ informal

Country age for age 2 yrs 11 mths 11mths parents Fees subsidy subsidies subsidies allowance care

Australia 6 long day care no yes yes yes yes no no no

Austria 6 Crèche no yes yes yes yes yes1 _and 2 _{no no}

Belgium 6 day care families supervised by ngo yes, over no yes, over yes, under yes yes3 _{yes for children no}

2.5 years 2.5 years 2.5 years below 3.

Canada 6 centre based care no yes, centre’s yes grants4 _{yes yes yes (addition for yes}

decision in most provinces lone parents)

Denmark 6 kindergarten, childcare institution yes no yes yes yes no no varies by

municipal

Finland 7 municipal day care centre yes5 _{- yes yes yes yes}1 _{no yes, private}

allowance6

France 6 childminder no no yes yes yes no7 _{yes no}

Germany 6 day nursery no yes yes yes yes yes3 _{yes -}

Greece 5.5 low income: public childcare no yes8 _{not for yes no no yes no}

high income: private childcare public

Ireland 6 childminder no no yes grants4 _{no no no -}

Israel 5 local government and public ngos no yes yes no yes9 _yes10 _{no no}

Italy 6 day nursery no yes yes no yes yes no no

Japan 6 public sector nursery (for both working no yes yes yes yes yes3 _and 13 _{no no}

parents)

Luxembourg 4 childminder no no yes14 _{yes not for childminders. no yes no}

yes, for state nursery

Netherlands 4 subsidised childcare no yes yes15 _{yes yes yes}3 _{yes no}

New Zealand 6 creche no no yes yes yes no yes no

Norway 6 public nursery no nursery/ yes yes yes yes3 _and16 _yes17 _yes

municipal decides

Continued

84

Table 5.3

Continued

Subsidies

Guarantee Priority Tax for

School Most prevalent f/t formal pattern for age 2yrs to lone State Income-related Other credit/ informal

Country age for age 2 yrs 11 mths 11mths parents Fees subsidy subsidies subsidies allowance care

Portugal 6 private non-profit kindergarten yes no yes yes yes no yes no

Spain 6 private day nurseries no no yes no no no no -

Sweden 6 municipal financed day care centres yes yes yes yes yes yes3 _{no no}

UK 6 childminder no no yes no no no yes no

USA 6/7 Family day care or child minder no for subsidies yes yes yes varies yes varies

1 _{subsidies also vary by family size} 2 _{subsides vary by size of dwelling}

3 _{subsidies vary by number of children in care} 4 _{grants are to the pre-school childcare providers}

5 _{childcare is guaranteed after the parental allowance period ends which is between 213 and 233 working days (depending when the mother begins maternity leave) from the child’s birth. In}

Finland public childcare is a subjective right. In all cases if a parent wants to put their under 7 year old child in public care the municipality has a duty to organise it. At the same time there is a child home care allowance scheme for families with 1-3 year old children. It makes it financially possible for one of the parents to stay at home to care for small children. Families with under I year old children are encouraged by parental leave schemes to care for their children at home.

6 _{private childcare allowance is only available after the parental allowance period ends which is between 213 and 233 working days (depending when the mother begins maternity leave) from the}

child’s birth and if in private care

7 _{whilst there is local support in many communes, this is not the case in Draveil, the chosen commune for the matrix.} 8 _{priority is also given to large families}

9 _{for working mothers, lone mothers and new immigrant families only. These have not been included in the matrix because funding is limited to a few cases each year and therefore very few}

parents can actually take advantage of these subsidies.

10_{subsidies also vary by number of children for working mothers, lone mothers and new immigrant families. These have not been included in the matrix because funding is limited to a few cases}

each year and therefore very few parents can actually take advantage of these subsidies.

11 _{these are highly fragmented according to local arrangements} 12_{for families with two working parents only}

13_{subsidies also vary by age of the child and the time arrangement}

14_{there is no official fee: these are negotiated between parent and childminder.} 15_{childcare isfree for a lone parent in a paid job or training}

16_{there are subsidies for lone parents with children under 10 (and for under threes in private childcare)} 17_{for children under 12}

85