Origen y significado de la enfermedad espiritual

Ultimately, the competitiveness of a nation in a particular economic subsector does not depend on the efforts of a single institution, such as a university, although its contributions may be important. Rather, sector-specific competitiveness depends largely on a nation’s ability to bring together a range of institutional actors and stakeholders that share a common interest in the performance of that sector, even though in some cases they may be competitors. This concentration of actors has often been called a national innovation system (see page 3) (Nelson 1993).

To assist in comparing the competitiveness of national economies, the World Economic Forum has developed an indicator for a country’s innovation capabilities. The indicator is derived from six component subindicators: the quality of research institutions, company spending on R&D, university–industry collaboration, government procurement of advanced technology, the availability of scientists and engineers, and the number of patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office. The subindicator scores for the three focus countries are in Table 9.

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These rankings provide the basis for several observations. First, innovation capacities are incipient in Bangladesh and Nepal, which therefore have sizable capacity-building challenges ahead of them. Sri Lanka is ranked higher, placing in the upper one-third of the ranking. Second, Bangladesh possesses sufficient scientists and engineers to put it in the middle of the worldwide innovation ranking. However, the talents of these researchers are not being put to good use, as suggested by the very low perceptions of company R&D spending and a near absence of university–industry links. Third, Sri Lanka presents a contrast of capacities. Company R&D spending, government procurement of advanced technology, and the number of scientists and engineers are much higher than Sri Lanka’s overall innovation rating. Although the government appears to be doing its part in providing research funds and access to new technology, research output in terms of applied technologies, as measured by patents, is low. The weak links between universities and industry may be part of the cause of this problem. Each of these components of innovation will have to be cultivated in concert if a national innovation system is to emerge. To initiate, coalesce, and develop national innovation systems focused on specific sectors, a country must identify the key organizational actors in pertinent economic and social sectors, understand their organizational behaviors, and analyze the institutional environment within which they interact. As these dynamics are understood, policy attention will shift toward issues of institutional governance and management structures (for greater flexibility and responsiveness), criteria and incentives for professional performance (for efficiency and higher productivity), and access to information and inter-institutional communication networks (for heightened competitive advantage). Universities with research capacities can be important players, partners, and networkers within a national innovation system. Thus, their systems of governance, management structures, performance accountability, and information infrastructure become factors that condition their effectiveness as national innovation system participants.

concluding considerations

The OECD (2008c) study program on tertiary education has developed a set of policy recommendations for strengthening higher education relevance and graduate employability. The complete list is presented as the concluding considerations of this chapter because the recommendations are pertinent to many of the countries in South Asia.

 improve data and analysis about graduate labor market outcomes. Consider greater investment in data

collection about labor market outcomes. Provide prospective students with information about wages and employment among recent graduates. Conduct surveys of graduates and track long-term graduate labor market outcomes through public data systems.

Table 9 World Economic Forum Indicator Rankings of Innovation Capacity

Country Innovation Capacity Ranking Quality of Research Institutions Company Research and Development Spending University– Industry Linkages Government Procurement of Advanced Technology Availability of Scientists and Engineers USPTO Patents Bangladesh 121 115 128 127 117 78 90 nepal 129 137 127 129 133 130 90 sri lanka 50 50 37 73 15 34 77

N = 142 countries, USPTO = United STates Patent and Trademark Office.

Source: K. Schwab, ed. 2012. The Global Competitiveness Report 2011–2012. Geneva: World Economic Forum.

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vative Strategies in Higher Education for Accelerated Human Resource De

 reinforce the capacity of institutions to respond to labor demand. Ensure that funding mechanisms

established by public authorities create incentives for institutions to respond to student demand. Ensure that tertiary institutions have the capacity to reallocate resources internally in response to students’ preferences. Devise management information systems that generate evidence of institutional performance in meeting enrollment demand. Encourage development of institutional governance and management arrangements that allow for efficiency in the allocation of resources.

 infuse education with a labor market orientation. Build ample choice into the system to meet a variety

of student and labor market needs. Expand opportunities for flexible, work-oriented study. Support the diversification of study opportunities. Strengthen the capacities of institutions charged with the provision of degree programs oriented toward working life and short-cycle practice-oriented programs. Establish public institutions with a strong labor market orientation (e.g., polytechnics). Authorize entry of vocationally oriented private education and training providers into the tertiary system.

 include labor market actors in policy development and institutional governance. Consider developing

institutional arrangements aimed at coordinating education, training, and employment such as by setting up a cabinet-level committee for human resource development. Involve labor market actors in the formulation of tertiary education policies through their inclusion in bodies that provide advice and analysis to policy makers. Ensure that labor market actors develop an active interest in participating in the dialogue and that their views are valued and properly taken into account in the formulation of policies. Include in deliberative and advisory bodies those who are responsible for employment and skills policies within government. Widen the participation of labor market actors in the bodies responsible for the strategic governance of tertiary institutions. Encourage tertiary institutions to engage employers, both public and private, in the design of programs and even the assessment of students through their involvement in councils or committees.

 Encourage higher education institutions to play a greater role in lifelong learning. Enhance higher

education’s role in renewing and improving skills of those already in the labor force. Increase the flexibility of provision (e.g., part-time, short cycle, and distance learning). Design education and training alternatives tailored to the needs of employers and given industries. Sustain practices such as internships for students and teachers in industry. Establish and support offices in universities and colleges to liaise with the business sector. Encourage participation of employers in the daily activities of institutions (including governance and curriculum development).

 Explore the potential of a national qualifications framework. Encourage employers to specify competencies

for employment. Encourage educational institutions to design programs to develop these competencies in students. Ensure that students know what competencies they need to acquire in order to become employable. Set up a qualifications framework to make student transfers across fields of study and institutions more flexible. Facilitate the assessment and recognition of prior learning.

 Strengthen career counseling services at secondary and tertiary educational levels. Ensure that career

guidance in secondary schools and career placement services in tertiary institutions make good use of data on educational alternatives and labor market outcomes. Ensure that career guidance offices are adequately staffed by trained professionals. Establish a national or regional career services office.

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7

Steering Higher Education

Systems and Institutions: