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As with other industries, the rise of social media has not gone unnoticed in sports. Reflecting the growth of social media, and the widespread adoption in the sports industry, scholarly inquiry has explored their use in a range of contexts. For example, studies have examined the motivations of fans in using sport websites and social media (Seo & Green, 2008; Stavros, Meng, Westberg, & Farrelly, 2014); fan and athlete use of Twitter (Clavio & Kian, 2010; Frederick, Lim, Clavio, & Walsh, 2012; Hambrick et al., 2010; Kassing & Sanderson, 2010; Lebel & Danylchuk, 2012), Facebook (Pronschinske, Groza, & Walker,

4 _{Due to the structure of this thesis, a preliminary overview of current sport-related social media research}

is presented here. To limit repetition, a more complete review of extant literature relevant to each unique study is provided within each chapter.

2012; Scott, Bradshaw, & Larkin, 2013) and Instagram (Geurin-Eagleman & Burch, in press); the use of social media by sports organisations (Abeza & O'Reilly, 2014; Hambrick & Kang, 2014; Meng, Stavros & Westberg, 2015; Thompson et al., 2014), sports teams and leagues (C. G. Armstrong, Delia, & Giardina, 2014; Bruffy, Scott, & Naylor, 2013; Bruffy, Scott, Naylor, & Beaton, 2014; Walden & Waters, 2015; Waters, Burke, Jackson, & Buning, 2011); and college sports (Dittmore, McCarthy, McEvoy, & Clavio, 2013; Dixon, Martinez, & Martin, 2015; Jensen, Ervin, & Dittmore, 2014; Sanderson, 2011; Wallace et al., 2011). In addition, research is emerging that considers organisational perspectives of social media usage (Abeza, O'Reilly, & Reid, 2013; Eagleman, 2013; J. McCarthy et al., 2014), along with its impact on sports journalism (Gibbs & Haynes, 2013; Kian & Zimmerman, 2012; B. McCarthy, 2014; Sanderson & Hambrick, 2012; Schoenstedt & Reau, 2010; Schultz & Sheffer, 2010).

In line with the growing media-dominated sports consumer, research shows that social media are vital tools for sports marketers. One of the fastest growing areas for sports marketing is the area of social media (Pegoraro, 2010). Yost (2010) argued that social media are no longer just places to connect with friends and family; instead, they are places for doing business and, therefore, sports brands should be looking at ways to integrate them into their strategic plans (Ballouli & Hutchinson, 2010). Researchers have even stated that sports brands may be at a competitive disadvantage if they do not engage in social media (Coyle, 2010).

Furthermore, research suggests the current generation of ‘net-users’ are so familiar with two-way communication that they expect their favourite sports brands to communicate and connect with them via these channels (Ballouli & Hutchinson, 2010; Kassing & Sanderson, 2010; Williams & Chinn, 2010). Sports brands failing to adhere to these changes risk losing sports fans, and the opportunities social media provide. These

opportunities include, but are not limited to, developing social connections, direct communication of brand image and enhanced loyalty (Walden & Waters, 2015; Wallace et al., 2011; Waters et al., 2011; Williams & Chinn, 2010).

Social media are regarded as the new rising force in marketing and brand management and these new phenomena have created a revolution in traditional marketing communication, which is now being embraced by all sectors of the sports industry (Lu- Anderson & Pitts, 2012; Pegoraro, 2010). As such, they provide sports brands with an unparalleled opportunity to reach a large consumer base (Pegoraro, 2010; Williams & Chinn, 2010). After examining perceptions of sports and entertainment venue managers Rothschild (2011) concluded that the significant rise in social media use in sports has resulted in the decline of traditional marketing and communication methods.

Indeed, while some sports brands are still trying to find their place in this changing landscape, others are creatively utilising these technologies and the functionality they provide to reach out to existing consumers and gain new ones. For example, in an attempt to reach international fans, and drive international membership sales to combat a saturated market in the U.K., Arsenal Football Club launched various digital media applications to extend its relationships and interaction with an international fan base beyond that experienced in-stadia (Knoop, 2012). In addition, sports brands are looking at ways to integrate social media into their facilities to support in-stadia engagement. For example, the Cleveland Indians launched a ‘social suite’ providing fans the opportunity to discuss the “Tribe” with other attendees and online followers from a Wi-Fi enabled suite at Progressive Field (Pfahl et al., 2012).

Research has shown social media have transformed sports media and its subsequent consumption. While much of the extant literature exists within the context of professional sports entities (i.e., athletes, leagues, teams) in the United States, the results

indicate that the majority are using social media to grow their brands and increase fan loyalty (Rice, 2009). In addition, these sites are utilised to drive real-time interaction, while offering direct feedback and updates (Mangold & Faulds, 2009). Scholars indicate that one of the key features of social media use in sports is the ability to overcome the barriers to fan access (Pegoraro, 2010), and state that social media are particularly effective in sports, as they allow fans, athletes and teams to easily connect with one another (Hambrick et al., 2010; Sanderson & Kassing, 2011; Walden & Waters, 2015). This is important, as fans’ accessibility to sports entities is central to the development of team identification (Sutton, McDonald, Milne, & Cimperman, 1997).

In addition, social media aid in developing online communities that bring sports fans together. Recent studies provide evidence to suggest that many uses of social media are focused towards creating fan unity and developing online communities that allow for fan interaction (Greene, Dotterweich, Palmero, & Good, 2014). The importance of this is supported by other scholars who argue the ability of fans to share their ‘consuming passions’, also contributes to establishing and/or reinforcing bonds between individuals (Cova & Cova, 2002; McAlexander, Schouten, & Koenig, 2002; Muniz Jr & O’guinn, 2001). Williams and Chinn (2010) indicate that if sports brands were able to use social media to make use of these benefits, they would aid them in achieving brand and relationship building goals.

Moreover, Pfahl et al. (2012) offer a number of examples of how sports marketers have adapted and are paying attention to the opportunities and options that social media provide. Indeed, Sanderson and Kassing (2011) argue that such direct communication provided by social media have revolutionised sports media by giving athletes and teams an opportunity to circumvent traditional media outlets. As a result, sports entities can now produce their own content and shape communication messages that support brand and

relationship building endeavours. Consequently, as Ballouli and Hutchinson (2010) claim, every sports team or organisation should be involved in social media in some way.

However, research also highlights that due to its perceived infancy and unsubstantiated ability to deliver on certain marketing objectives, sports organisations are hesitant to engage in branding endeavours on social media. To this end, previous literature emphasises barriers and perceived challenges, both internal and external, to the adoption of these new technologies among various sports entities. For example, Abeza et al. (2013) identify five challenges that impact on the benefits that brands can derive from social media: lack of control, concerns over credibility, concerns over effectiveness, difficulties identifying true customers and the allocation of organisational resources. Likewise, scholars state that constant technological developments necessitate organisations to adapt their strategies accordingly (O'Shea & Alonso, 2012; Thompson et al., 2014).