An interpretive phenomenological approach was utilised. Martin Heidegger (in Reiners, 2012:1) developed interpretive phenomenology by extending
41 hermeneutics, the philosophy of interpretation. Hermeneutics move beyond the description or core concepts of the experience and seeks meanings that are embedded in everyday occurrences (Reiners, 2012:1). During Phase 1, the researcher endeavoured to explore and describe the lived experiences of academically excluded students by means of multiple data gathering methods, namely interviews, observations and field notes. The participants in the study were also requested to describe their experiences.
2.4.1.1 Population and sampling
Population in this study refers to all academically excluded students at a higher education institution. The accessible population was academically excluded students in a faculty at a higher education institution.
In qualitative research, purposive sampling methods and techniques are utilised, rather than random sampling (De Vos, et al. 2011:334). Denzin and Lincoln (2007:370) point out that qualitative researchers select individuals, groups, and settings where the specific processes are most likely to occur, and a process of constant comparisons between the individuals and groups being studied is essential since the researcher is in pursuit of understanding all aspects of his research topic.
In purposive sampling, a particular case is chosen because it illustrates some feature or process that is of interest for the study. The researcher must first think critically about the parameters of the population and then choose the sample accordingly (De Vos, et al. 2011:334). Creswell (2012:118) comments that the purposeful selection of participants represents a key decision point in a qualitative study, and researchers designing qualitative studies need clear criteria in mind and need to provide rationales for their decisions.
Participants in this study complied with the following criteria to be selected and included in this research study:
42 The person:
• had to be English speaking;
• must have been excluded from continued study within a faculty at a particular university in South Africa; and
• had to be willing to participate in the research. 2.4.1.2 Data collection
Multiple data-gathering techniques, namely interviews, observations, and field notes were utilised during the research process.
a) Phenomenological, individual in-depth interviews
Phenomenological, individual in-depth interviews are defined by Seideman (2013:16) as a conversation with a purpose, where a researcher and a participant explore the issue at hand, which allows a researcher to focus on a participant’s perception of their experiences. The ultimate goal is to describe ordinary conscious experiences of everyday life carefully, and not to generate theories or to provide explanations. These experiences include perceptions, beliefs, memories, decisions, feelings, judgements, evaluations, and everything related to bodily action. In this process, the researcher brackets or sets aside their own experiences in order to understand those of the participants in the study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2007:13).
Interviewing is the predominant mode of data or information collection in qualitative research (De Vos, et al. 2011:292). Babbie (2013:306) views the qualitative interview as an interaction between an interviewer and participant in which the interviewer has a general plan of inquiry, including the topics to be covered, but not a set of questions that must be asked with words, or in a particular order. A qualitative interview is essentially a conversation in which the
43 interviewer establishes a general direction for the conversation and pursues specific topics raised by the participant.
The individual, one-on-one interview, also sometimes referred to as the in-depth interview, merely extends and formalises conversation, and is also referred to as a “conversation with purpose” (De Vos, et al. 2011:298). The aim of the interview process is thus to engage in a conversation, and not a question and answer session. The interviews aimed to explore and describe the lived experiences of academically excluded students.
The researcher arranged a neutral meeting space with the participants to conduct the interviews. The participants were selected amongst academically excluded students from a faculty at a particular South African university. They were all invited to visit the campus to participate in the interview sessions. Alternatively, the researcher arranged a substitute convenient meeting time and space suitable for each individual participant.
In this research study, academically excluded students from a faculty at a university were approached to participate. They were invited to share their lived experiences of being excluded by interviewing with the researcher. The students were invited to participate through an initial e-mail invitation, and those who expressed their interest to participate were then contacted telephonically to confirm the arrangements for the session. The interviews were conducted during Phase 1 of the research study. To attain this aim, multiple students who had been excluded from a specific faculty at the university were identified in cooperation with the faculty’s executive management and administration.
Phenomenological interviewing was used to gather the data. Phenomenology, as a research approach, aims to understand and interpret the meaning participants give to their everyday lives. In order to accomplish this, the researcher should be able to enter the participant’s “life world” or “life setting” and place himself in the shoes of the participant (De Vos, et al. 2011:273). This is mainly done by analysing the conversations and interactions that researchers have with the
44 participants. Researchers using this strategy of interpretative phenomenology will primarily use participant observation and lengthy interviews as methods of data collection (De Vos, et al. 2011:273).
The research question posed to the participants was:
“How is it for you to be excluded from further study at this university?”
The interviews commenced with the welcoming of the individual participants as they presented themselves for the interviews. The purpose of the interviews was then clarified, and the researcher ensured that all the participants clearly understood the purpose. The nature of informed consent and the confidentiality of their information were also explained, and the participants had the opportunity to complete informed consent forms. The interviews began with the researcher requesting consent for the interviews to be recorded. The participants were set at ease, and the interviews started with the posing of the research question, as indicated.
The researcher limited his responses to elicit further responses from the participants, to encourage further clarifications where deemed appropriate, and to ensure the flow of the interview without attempting to focus the conversation in any direction. Towards the end of the interview, the researcher summarised the key points made and invited the participants to revisit any discussion points and to allow them a final opportunity to share any additional thoughts. The participants were then thanked for their contributions, and the interviews ended.
There are two criteria for determining when “enough” participants have been interviewed and sufficient data gathered (De Vos, et al. 2011:300). The first is sufficiency, implying sufficient numbers to reflect the range of participants and sites that make up the population so that others outside the sample might have a chance to connect to the experiences of those in it. Secondly, saturation plays a role in determining the sample size. Saturation is the point at which themes are
45 repeated and no new points are generated; the same information is repeatedly reported, and the researcher hears nothing new (De Vos, et al. 2011:300). Thus, during the interviews of academically excluded students, an example of saturation was when students did not come forward with new or additional themes or information. From this point, continuation of further interviews should be reconsidered.
Non-directive communication strategies such as active listening skills, minimal verbal responses, reflecting, paraphrasing, clarifying, summarising and silence were utilised during the facilitation of the phenomenological, individual in-depth interviews (Okun, 2015:69). These strategies are briefly discussed next:
• Reflecting: The researcher allows the participant to reflect on what was said by repeating the participant’s question, statement or remark (Van Manen, 2007:12; Friend & Cook, 2013:63).
• Clarification and checking: Clarification can be described as when the researcher requests the participant to clarify his or her statement by either providing an example or by further explanation (Fischer & Wertz, 2017:279; De Vos, et al. 2011:311).
• Open-ended questions: With open-ended questions, the participant is free to communicate his or her feelings without prompting from the interviewer (Baxter & Babbie, 2004:325; De Vos, et al. 2011:310).
• Paraphrasing: With paraphrasing the interviewer repeats the participant’s statement in his or her own words to clarify what was said (Friend & Cook, 2013:61; Okun, 2015:123).
• Summarising: The summarising of thoughts and expressions during the interview provides the researcher with the opportunity to reflect on what has been said, to ensure that he does not misunderstand the interviewee (Friend & Cook, 2013:64; De Vos, et al. 2011:311).
46 • Silence and pauses: The use of silence during pauses allows both the
researcher and participant time to think, thus permitting the participant another opportunity to communicate more information (Friend & Cook, 2013:85; Okun, 2015:90).
• Minimal verbal responses and minimal encouragers: Minimal verbal responses by the interviewer afford the participant the opportunity to communicate, conveying the researcher’s interest in what the interviewee is saying (Waltz, Strickland & Lenz, 2016:290; Friend & Cook, 2013:43).
• Nonverbal communication: Body language confirms, questions and augments what is said verbally. The most important aspects that need to be considered in nonverbal communication are congruence and individualism (Friend & Cook, 2013:44).
The interviews were recorded, with the consent of the participants, on a digital recording device and transcribed verbatim.
b) Observation and field notes
In addition to the recording of the interviews conducted with the participants, the researcher also made notes about the interviews. The notes were transcribed soon after the completion of the interviews, whilst the researcher was able to recall important observations and mental notes.
Field notes are written accounts of the issues that the researcher experienced during the interviews with the participants, and they include observations and personal interpretations. Babbie (2013:310) states that it is of utmost importance to take full and accurate notes of what goes on in qualitative studies. Field notes enable the researcher to recall any observations made during the interviews for later referral. Fields notes were taken during the interviews and updated soon after the completion of the interviews with the participants. They act as a written account of what has been said, heard, experienced, and the researcher’s
47 thoughts on the interviews. This enabled the researcher to gain a clearer picture of what academically excluded students experience and to understand how the students themselves understand their exclusions (De Vos, et al. 2011:304; McMillan & Schumacher, 2001:41).
De Vos, et al. (2011:278) regard participant observation as a research procedure that is typical of the qualitative paradigm. It is generally assumed that the real world of the participants of a research study can only be understood if the words and impressions they use in the specific situations are revealed. De Vos, et al. (2011:280) continue to define the concept of participant observation as a qualitative research procedure that studies the natural and everyday setup in a community or situation. Bothma, et al. (2015:2) state that during observation, the researcher endeavours to become part of the lives and daily routine of the participants, but at the same time nothing in the situation should be changed.
In this research study, the following field notes were taken after each of the phenomenological, individual in-depth interviews by the researcher (De Vos, et al. 2011:304; Polit & Beck, 2016:406-407):
• Observational notes: Observational notes reflect what the researcher sees, hears, experiences and thinks about during the interviewing process and methods used in the observations (Graziano & Raulin, 2013:421; De Vos, et al. 2011:304). These notes are important for the researcher in documenting the observations during the participant’s interaction in their settings, if clarified with the participants (Talbot, 2005:479).
• Theoretical notes: Theoretical notes reflect the researcher’s thoughts and are purposeful attempts to derive meaning from the observational notes (Wilson, 2009:435). The researcher utilised the observational notes and drew inferences towards the building of a conceptual scheme.
48 • Methodological notes: Methodological notes reflect strategies and methods
used in the observations. These notes are instructions to the researcher, critique of one’s procedure and processes, and reminders of the approaches that might enhance the methodology (Wilson, 2009:436).
• Personal notes: Personal notes are comments about the researcher’s own feelings whilst in the field, which reflect on whether the feelings had any influence on what was being observed (Polit & Beck, 2016:406).
All these types of field notes were utilised by the researcher as an important part of the data collection process.
2.4.1.3 Data analysis
Data-analysis is the process of bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of collected data. De Vos, et al. (2011:341) present the process of qualitative data analysis stepwise as follows:
1. Collecting and recording of the data 2. Managing data
3. Reading, memo writing
4. Describing, classifying, interpreting 5. Representing, visualising
Data analysis involves making meaning out of textual or graphic data with several techniques available for data analysis when using the phenomenological method. LoBiondo-Wood and Haber (2010:105) state that although the methods are slightly different from each other, there is a general pattern of moving from the participant’s decryption to the researcher’s synthesis of all participants’ descriptions.
49 In this research study, data were analysed using Tesch’s open coding method of analysing descriptive data (Creswell, 2014:192-193), and involved the following eight steps:
1. Get a sense of the whole by carefully reading through all the transcriptions of the interviews.
2. Select one interview and peruse it again, asking what it is about, bearing in mind its underlying meaning. Write thoughts in the margin.
3. Make a list of all the topics from all the interviews, clustering similar topics together. Arrange these topics into major themes, unique themes and leftover topics.
4. Abbreviate the topics as codes, which must then be written next to the segment of the text. Check if new categories or themes emerge.
5. Change the topics into descriptive categories. Reduce the categories by clustering similar topics together.
6. Decide on the final abbreviations for each category and place these codes in alphabetical order.
7. Assemble the related data material of each category in one place.
8. Recode the existing data if necessary and conduct a preliminary analysis.
By following these eight steps, the researcher analysed the data collected from the phenomenological, individual in-depth interviews with academically excluded students selected for data collection in Phase 1 of the study.
The information gained from the interviews with the participants and the accompanying field notes were lastly analysed to gain specific information about
50 the participants’ experience of the psycho-educational programme. An independent coder, experienced in qualitative research, conducted an analysis of the verbatim transcriptions of the participants’ responses, and presented the thematic findings to the researcher. A consensus discussion was held between the researcher and independent coder to reach agreement on the findings.
2.4.1.4 Literature control
The purpose of a literature control is to examine the results of previous studies, to situate the present study in the context of current discourse in the literature, and to provide a background for comparing the results of the study with other similar studies (Creswell, 2012:30). De Vos, et al. (2011:266) state that the general functions of literature in a qualitative study is a thoughtful and informed discussion of related literature that should build a logical framework for the research that sets it within a tradition of inquiry and a context of related studies.
A literature control was conducted to compare and contextualise the results of the description and exploration as manifested by the lived experiences of academically excluded students with other studies, as well as relevant available literature (Burns & Grove, 2017:118).
2.4.2 Phase 2: Development of a conceptual framework as basis for the