PÁRRAFO IV- Cuando se trate de jeeps de lujo denominados "jeepetas"
OTROS REQUISITOS
The timing of the second voyage coincided with the availability of new navigational technology – a chronometer to calculate clock time and longitude at sea. John Harrison (1693-1776) had offered his fourth timekeeping device, the H4, to the Admiralty for trials at the time Cook was planning his Endeavour voyage.71 At this time, however, the chronometer was in the possession of Larcum Kendall who, with Harrison‟s supervision, was producing a duplicate.72 The Board rejected the offer due to H4‟s uniqueness, and the anticipated hazardous nature of the voyage. H4 was also required for the construction of the Kendall duplicate. The duplicate, known simply as K1, was issued to Cook for the second voyage.73 John Arnold (1736-1799), a London watchmaker,
also supplied three of his self-designed watches for trial.
Figure 2.5, K1, the Chronometer.74
The second voyage was a much more elaborate venture with two ships, the HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure. The Resolution under the command of Cook included in its manifest three oversized pocket watches – the K1, the Arnold 3 and the Ellicott No. 4659. The Adventure, captained by Tobias Furneaux, was
issued with the Arnold 1 and 2 and it also used the astronomer William Bayly‟s privately owned pocketwatch.75 Prior to departing England, the watches were calibrated to Greenwich mean time.76 Each ship was also allocated clocks for specific uses on land. These were two
71 Whitrow, Time in History, pp. 142-145, Betts, pp. 29-95, Sobel, pp. 61-176, Anthony G. Randall, „The Timekeeper that Won the Longitude Prize‟, in Andrewes (ed.), pp. 235-254, and Glennie and Thrift, pp. 359-406, for Harrison‟s background and achievements. H4 was completed in 1759.
72 This was a stipulation of the Board. The chronometer had to be duplicable by another person.
73 Cook had recently been promoted to the rank of Captain. Sobel, pp. 144, 150, states that K1 was completed in January 1770 following two and half years work and cost £450. However, p. 153 states £500. Howse and Hutchinson, p. 191 states £450, and p. 193 footnote indicates a £50 bonus was also paid.
74 http://www.google.co.nz/imgres?q=k1+chronometer..., held by National Maritime Museum, London. Repro ID: C9303_1. K1 is 13 cm in diameter and weighs 1.45kgs.
75 Howse and Hutchinson, p. 64. Beaglehole, The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772-1775, pp.16-7.
76 David, Charts of the Resolution and Adventure 1772-1775, pp. xviii-xix. See also Howse and Hutchinson, p.
193, and Thomas, p. 164. These give more detailed footnoted accounts.
John Shelton77 designed and built astronomical regulator clocks,78 two Journeyman clocks and two Alarum clocks. They were used to time accurately the transit observations and were taken ashore in New Zealand during extended periods of stay. Examples of this were the detailed surveys conducted at Mercury Bay, Dusky Sound and Queen Charlotte Sound.79 The ships were also well provided with surveying and navigational instruments supplied by the Board of Longitude or the Royal Society or purchased specifically for the voyage.80
Security surrounding the chronometers was quite strict with each housed in a purpose-built box that required three keys to open it. On the Resolution, the keys for K1 and Arnold No.3 were held by Cook, his First Lieutenant Robert Palliser Cooper and the astronomer William Wales. On the Adventure, the keys for Arnold No.1 and No.2 were entrusted to Captain Furneaux, First Lieutenant Joseph Shank and the astronomer William Bayly.81 All were required to be present daily at noon when the boxes were opened, the watches wound and compared to each other.82 The astronomers were responsible for the day-to-day guardianship of the chronometers.83 One reason for the strict security that governed the use and movement of the chronometers was their cost: K1 was worth £500. A second and more prominent reason for the security of the chronometers laid in the specific function they had to serve. They were being formally tested for the British Government, so the risk of being tampered with had to be removed, and only those authorised to handle them were allowed to do so.
The Board of Longitude required the astronomers, Wales and Bayly, to undertake extensive trials of the chronometers to assess their performance. These involved the taking of observations for latitude and longitude.84 Wales, for example, obtained the Resolution‟s longitude at sea by chronometer on over 1,000 days and by lunars on over 400 days.
Sometimes multiple observations were made on a single day. The chronometers were
77 A London clockmaker.
78 David, p. xxiii. The Resolution clock was marked „B‟ and the Adventure clock marked „C‟. “The purpose of these clocks was to provide accurate timekeeping on shore.”
79 Orchiston, pp. 61-92.
80 David, p. xix. David quotes Wales (Wales and Bayly (1777)), p. vi, “every instrument necessary for the undertaking, of the best sort, and constructed by the most approved makers.”
81 Shank suffered from gout and was sent home. Arthur Kempe was promoted to first lieutenant and given the third key.
82 If one person was unable to be present for any reason, then he had to be replaced by another officer. On one occasion, Wales, with his two observers, forgot to wind K1 and it stopped. However, Wales was able to reset it to GMT as he had been keeping accurate records.
83 The chronometers were taken ashore for testing at Cape Town on 31 October 1772. Unfortunately, the longboat in which Wales was seated with Arnold No.1 and No.2 hit the wharf heavily, jolting one of the Arnolds. Wales examined it and even though it had stopped did not consider the damage to be serious. He restarted it but it kept time poorly. The second continued to keep good time.
84 David, p. xvii and pp. xxv-xxix, for detail. See also Howse and Hutchinson, p. 193.
immune to the effects of cloud, and the position of the Sun relative to the moon and fixed stars.85 However, in order to rate the chronometers astronomical observations were required to be taken on land on every possible occasion.86 For the period of March/April 1773, K1 and Arnold 3 were tested in conjunction with the lunars during the Resolution’s stay in Dusky Sound87 and longitude was calculated with a high degree of accuracy. At the next anchorage, in Queen Charlotte Sound, the chronometers revealed that the January 1770 calculations were
“measurably in error.”88 Further testing on 17 August 1773 at Fort Venus, in Tahiti, revealed K1 to be keeping excellent time.89 In Tonga, on 2 October 1773, K1 was found to be accurate to within half a degree. On 22 April 1774, the Resolution was again in Tahiti and only a small error was found with K1. In October 1774, Resolution returned to Queen Charlotte Sound, when additional testing was done and Green‟s charts from the Endeavour voyage were amended. Only a small error was found with K1 when the Resolution arrived off the English Coast on 29 July 1775.90 Cook‟s trust in K1 resonates in his journals. He attached a
„maternal‟ personality to the watch and referred to it in the third person singular as “she” and
“her”, and as “our faithful guide through all vicissitudes of climates.”91 K1 had presented a mechanical answer to the problem of finding clock time at sea, and its accuracy in helping to determine New Zealand‟s location and draft accurate charts proved it.
85 Ibid., p. xxv, for detail. The lunars could not be used in bad weather or when the Sun and moon were either too close to each other or too far apart. See also Betts, p. 21, for detail.
86 David, pp. xxviii-xxix, for detailed explanation. See also Howse and Hutchinson, p. 194, Fig. 5, which shows the performance of K1 and Arnold No.1 from the Cape of Good Hope to New Zealand in 1772-3. K1‟s rate of gain increased from about two seconds to about seven seconds per day. Arnold 1‟s rate of loss increased from 20 to about 25 seconds per day over the same leg.
87 It is on the southwest coast of the South Island.
88 David, p. xxxv, for a detailed explanation. These errors occurred despite the calculations being made on land.
The Endeavour voyage only had lunar tables published up to the end of December 1769.
89 Fort Venus was chosen as the latitude and longitude were known with a high degree of certainty.
90 Betts, p. 89. W.J.H. Andrewes, „Even Newton Could Be Wrong: The Story of Harrison‟s First Three Sea Clocks‟, in Andrewes (ed.), p. 234. Harrison received just over £23,000. He died 24 March 1776.
91 Howse and Hutchinson, p. 194, cite Cook‟s journal, June 1774, with endnote 12, p. 205. Cook used the personal pronoun „she‟ three times, and “her” once, in the space of two sentences. And Ibid. which cites Cook‟s letter to Secretary of the Admiralty, April 1775, from Cape of Good Hope, and endnote 13, p. 205, for long quote.