P ROCESO DE VOTACIÓN Y ASAMBLEAS

31 climate imperatives, but to help existing enterprises keep up with changes in the economy.

3.4 Other Factors

The factors that may impede or facilitate integration between climate and other development goals in cities is not exhaustive. In fact, the listed sets of considerations may not be the only (or even the primary) challenge that cities face in integrating sustainability into their climate plans. Other factors—such as a lack of finance or shortages of administrative capacity—may also play a role in limiting this integration (Rock, 2002). At the same time, there is a fast growing literature on sustainability transitions that underlines how niche innovations interact with broader markets, policies and institutions that interact with even wider ranging norms and economic conditions (Geels, 2002). These larger theories may nonetheless prove challenging to translate to the next part of the paper: an initial review of climate and related plans in select cities in Japan.

4. Reviewing Climate Plans in Japan

This section of the paper involves a preliminary review of the climate change plans of two cities in Japan: the large and well-known city of Kyoto; and the smaller and less recognized city of Matsumoto. The reviews look at whether and to what extent the linkages between climate and the environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainable development are evident in climate and other relevant plans. It also examines if there is any evidence of the factors in section of the paper that facilitated or prevented integration across these issues. It merits underlining that the review is based exclusively on desk study. As such, any inferences drawn from the review remain tentative and subject to further analysis based on interviews with relevant staff in the respective cities. Further, the approach employed in this section, will be replicated for other cities in Japan so as to expand the evidence base and ground even preliminary findings in a deeper body of knowledge. Last but not least, as also underlined in the literature review, Kyoto and Matsumoto are very different cities in terms of their population, geography, economic structure, and positioning in the Japanese government. These differences may contribute to any differences identified in the degree of integration between climate and other sustainability objectives as well as the reasons for those differences.

32 4.1 The Case of Kyoto

4.1.1 City and Climate Plan Background

As the international birthplace of the Kyoto Protocol, the city of Kyoto is widely recognised as an agenda setter on climate and environmental policies. Located in the western centre of Japan and occupying roughly 4,600 km², Kyoto is a thriving metropolis of 1.47 million people. An historical city, by turns both traditional and modern, Kyoto’s main industries include tourism, research, manufacturing and services;

its estimated GDP per capita was US 41,410 in 2015. Kyoto carries designated city status, meaning that it has been granted administrative functions typically reserved for Japanese Prefectural Governments.

In 1997, Kyoto was of the first cities in the world to announce its planned adoption of global warming countermeasures. Subsequently, in 2004, the city officially enacted a directive outlining its efforts to address climate change. This led to the formulation of Kyoto’s climate action plan in 2006, which has since been modified several times to ratchet up emissions reduction targets in line with national and international commitments. The current plan—last revised in 2017— pledges to reduce 1.335 million tons of greenhouse gases (GHGs) by 2020, reaching zero carbon by the latter half of the 21st century through a combination of 98 actions, 36 policies, and 19 directions, all comprised under Kyoto’s six visions for a low carbon society. The six visions include a focus on transit and mobility, forest restoration, energy and recycling, environmentally friendly lifestyles, green economic activities, and waste reduction, respectively.

Accordingly, Kyoto’s action plan sets out emissions reduction priorities for the immediate (present-2020), medium (2030-2040), and long-term (2050 and beyond).

Thirteen mitigation strategies have been proposed, clustered under the following sectors and activities: residential, commercial, industrial, transport, waste, addressing GHGs excluding carbon dioxide, and other reduction actions, all defined by a suite of supply and demand-side policy measures. The action plan also features a section on climate change adaptation, highlighting actions to build resilience against natural disasters, protect health and safety, and minimise impacts on aquatic resources and ecosystems.

4.1.2 Integration between Climate and Other Dimensions of Sustainable Development

Kyoto’s action plan puts forward a number of policy measures focused on environmental conservation, resource management, and pollution prevention. Nature-based urban planning solutions are referenced throughout the plan, such as expanding the amount of green spaces, utilising biomass for heating, and introducing porous

33 pavement to improve water quality and drainage. Other proposals include constructing sustainable buildings, increasing energy efficiency and the use of renewables, encouraging pedestrian access by widening public transportation options and the availability of eco-vehicles, and enhancing waste reduction efforts.

Another key facet of Kyoto’s climate action plan is an emphasis on citizen engagement.

Local residents are identified as having an important role to play in carrying out the plan’s stated goals and objectives, which is clearly reflected in several policy proposals.

For instance, the plan discusses making use of information and education campaigns, community partnerships and incentives for the promotion of more eco-friendly lifestyles.

On the other hand, little mention is given to issues of social inclusion and equity:

whereas compact land use planning is highlighted as one solution to addressing the needs of the elderly, for example, the plan does not indicate how similar interventions might be tailored to other vulnerable individuals, such as persons with disabilities.

The plan also presents a range of strategies and measures aimed at mobilising the private sector to take action on climate change. In addition to proposing carbon offsetting, renewable energy mandates and the introduction of CO2 reduction plans for business, the plan highlights the need for public-private-partnerships to incubate low-carbon technologies and initiatives. Green procurement is also listed as a means towards this end.

Vertical and horizontal cooperation are important considerations taken up by Kyoto’s climate action plan. Kyoto maintains strong ties with the national government since being inducted in Japan’s “Eco-Model City” program in 2013: and to this day utilises the platform to leverage funding and engage with other local authorities on climate issues.

The city also participates in international networks on climate change including as a member of ICLEI and the Covenant of Mayors. Further, Kyoto also maintains sister city status with Paris.

4.2 The Case of Matsumoto

4.2.1 City and Climate Plan Background

Matsumoto is the second most populous city of Nagano Prefecture, Japan. An old castle town located at the heart of the Japanese Alps, Matsumoto has a population of 243,293 inhabitants (2015), being one of the few municipalities whose population is growing within Nagano Prefecture. It is a regional commercial centre and was designated as a special city in 2000. Its economy is predominantly based on tertiary activities—including retail and tourism—but has a significant share of secondary

34 industries, especially electronics. Matsumoto also has a strong presence of dairy producers and manufacturers.

Two different plans have been reviewed for this paper. First, the “Third Basic Environment Plan of Matsumoto City”, and second, the “Matsumoto City Global Warming Action Plan”. The “Third Matsumoto Environmental Basic Plan” is the higher order plan coordinating other sectoral plans such as plans focusing on greenery or decarbonisation. Its current edition was launched in 2016, and reviewed the original plan from 2011. The plan is the basic framework imagining the future of Matsumoto—a more sustainable and healthy city where everybody can enjoy and live in harmony with nature, in which people recycle and work together to improve the environment. The plan has 6 sections: 1. Basic matters; 2. Summary of the city; 3. Environmental status; 4.

Aim of the plan; 5. Development of measures; 6. Management of the plan’s progress.

The Third Basic Environment Plan was launched to promote more systematic and comprehensive environmental actions, paying special attention to the municipal context.

To do so, it establishes five main pillars: 1. A town that considers the global environment as irreplaceable; 2. A town that reduces environmental impacts and where resources circulate; 3. A town where to live safely and with easy of mind; 4. A town that appreciates the blessings of nature? (自然の恵みを大切に受けつぐまち); 5. A Town that brings up greenery, water, and history (p. 53). The five pillars create multiple linkages with other environmental, social, or economic elements.

Under the city’s Third Basic Environment Plan is the “Matsumoto Global Warming Action Plan”; its current version was issued in 2016 also reviewing the 2011 edition. The plan is 75 pages long and is structured in 6 main sections: 1. Purpose of the plan; 2.

Summary of the city; 3. Current GHG emissions; 4. Reduction targets; 5. Efforts to reduce GHG emissions; 6. System to promote the plan. It is formulated based on the

“Global Warming Prevention Act”, which obliges municipalities to prepare their own climate change adaptation plan according to their natural and social conditions. The current plan emphasises on setting goals for GHG reduction targets while working with related plans to achieve its overall goals and remaining sustainability-related objectives (p. 12).

4.2.2 Integration between Climate and Other Dimensions of Sustainable Development

The Third Basic Environment Plan—especially in its first, second, third, and fourth pillars—establishes linkages with other environmental goals. The first pillar looks beyond Matsumoto by acknowledging the universal nature of sustainable development and the need to act locally to fight against global warming; it puts forward the idea of transitioning to a low-carbon society. At its core, the second pillar, lays the idea of

35 minimising impacts upon the environment. It delves into resource circulation and waste management, including measures to protect farmland and forests, which are progressively being abandoned because of population ageing. The third pillar considers pollution. For instance, it seeks to preserve the richness of Matsumoto’s nature and to maintain blue skies—in relation to low air pollution—a green city, and clean water. The fourth pillar addresses the connections between biodiversity and population decline in small and depopulating villages.

Social concerns come to the forefront especially in relation to issues consequential to a hyper-ageing society; this is one of its three main guiding principles of the Third Basic Environment Plan. It stresses the need to build a city where humans can live in harmony with nature, developing their activities with little impact on the environment (p.

52). Unsurprisingly, this all-encompassing goal includes multiple linkages such as the preservation of the city’s environment, build a sustainable society that has a low impact on the environment, and efforts to protect the global environment. Depopulation is linked also to natural ecosystems and biodiversity, since the depopulation and abandonment of small villages in mountainous areas will endanger them by means of mismanagement of natural assets.

Economic aspects seems by-products of other goals or a needed part of measures for their implementation. The plan, however, says that there will be resources available for businesses working towards a green shift (p. 100). The promotion of material circulation, in line with the national government’s emphasis on the 3R, has clear economic linkages since it transforms the productive model of the city. The plan also hints at reducing the city’s automobile dependency and fostering other transportation means. In terms of infrastructure, the plan fosters the change to renewable energy sources and the introduction of energy-service company (ESCO) projects not only in public facilities but also among the private sector.

Throughout the plan there are few references to vertical and horizontal integration.

Regarding vertical integration between different levels of government, the introduction summarises the different national and regional plans upon which Matsumoto’s own is built. Then, it highlights that the third basic environment plan of Matsumoto will work as the higher level of reference for any other municipal plan dealing with the environment—

such as the city’s global warming action plan, which focuses on decarbonisation strategies. The references are somewhat vague, just mentioning “collaboration with this agency” or “in accordance to this regional/national plan”.

Mention of stakeholder engagement is also unclear. The plan merely notes the need of companies, schools, citizens, the local administration, to combine efforts to fight against climate change (p. 60). A recurrent trope throughout is the necessity of voluntary

36 cooperation from private agents, without further specification. Furthermore, public awareness raising education activities also emphasise the importance of preserving the natural environment.