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Primary data were primarily collected through a standardized and structured questionnaire survey conducted at households through face-to-face interviews. Some data were also collected from key informant interviews to identify the components of household resilience. In addition, observations and informal discussions were used to gather additional and supplementary information on cyclones and storm surge disasters, their impact on the livelihood activities of residents, residents’ ability to cope with disasters, and their access to GO and NGO support services. A detailed description of the primary data collection procedures are discussed in the following section.

4.5.1 Description of the household survey

The household survey was conducted in co-operation with the BanD-AID project, as the current study is closely related with this project. BanD-AID is a project by an international, cross-disciplinary team com- prising natural and social scientists from various countries including Bangladesh and Germany. It focuses on causes of sea-level-rise hazards and on integrated development of predictive modeling for mitigation and adaptation in the Bangladesh Delta. Data collection in the study area was undertaken in various phases as

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Phase 1: Developing the questionnaire

The main instrument of a survey is a standardized questionnaire. To collect primary data from study villages at the household level, a coordination scheme was prepared and a structured questionnaire was developed (partly based on the questionnaire used by Braun and Aßheuer, 2011; Aßheuer et al., 2013). The aim of this questionnaire was to obtain human capital-related information (i.e., education level, ability to read and write, vocational skills, practical skills, etc.) as well as information on other forms of capital, daily living condi- tions, and characteristics pertaining to disaster resilience. Thus, the questionnaire comprised three sections, including geographical setting and demographic characteristics, land-use changes, and forms of household capital (natural, financial, human, social, and physical) and components of disaster resilience. The first stage included creating 39 questions using robust indicators of capital and disaster resilience based on an extensive literature review. To ensure the reliability of the questionnaire, it was pre-tested and necessary modifications were made during the first field phase (mid-March to mid-April 2014). While pre-testing, some questions, which could not be understood by local households, were excluded. For instance, the first version of the questionnaire used “bigha” as a unit of land measurement. However, land measurement units vary from one place to another in this coastal area (e.g., paki, kani, katha, kora), and hence the term shotangsho was used as a unit of land measurement in the final questionnaire instead. Appendix 2 provides an overview of the questionnaire used for the household interviews.

Phase 2: Translating the questionnaire

The final version of the questionnaire was translated to Bangla by a professional translator, who was the co- editor of a national leading newspaper, The Daily Star. To retain the original meaning of the questions, this study ensured semantic equivalence across languages, conceptual equivalence across cultures, and norma- tive equivalence to the source survey. Semantic equivalence refers to word and sentence structures in the translated text retaining the same meaning as the original. Conceptual equivalence refers to the similarity of the concept measured across groups, even if the wording was different. Normative equivalence refers to the capacity of the translated text to address social norms and values that may differ across cultures (Sheheli, 2012).

Phase 3: Forming the survey team

Ten members, all of whom had prior experience in fieldwork, were part of the survey team. Two data col- lectors were PhD candidates from Rajshahi University and six other members had graduated from different universities majoring in Geography and Environmental Studies. These six data collectors were from the

coastal districts of Khulna, Patuakhali, and Noakhali. Two experts (volunteers), from two different univer- sities (i.e., Patuakhali Science and Technology University and Noakhali Science and Technology University) located in the coastal region were also part of the survey team. The data collectors were hired on the recommendation of these two experts, although the criteria of educational background (geography or disaster management), prior experience, and location of permanent residence were also considered. Educa- tional background and survey experience were considered to understand candidates’ academic competency, while location of permanent residence was necessary to ensure proper communication through local dialects, as local dialects play a significant role in meaning construction and interpretation and expression of specific characteristics or events (Howitt, 2010). The recruitment of local data collectors was not only for gathering data but also for understanding social customs and the cultural context. The survey team also included a female data collector. Throughout the survey period, the local data collectors provided substantial infor- mation pertaining to the survey questions and their interpretation of the different responses.

Phase 4: Training session on data collection

After selecting the data collectors, a three-day-long training session was organized for them at the Depart- ment of Geography and Environmental Studies at the University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh. The training helped the data collectors in understanding the interview questions, and after a pilot testing, the process of interviewing households was initiated. It also provided other important information to the data collectors pertaining to ethics, types of questions, and follow-up questions. Besides these, the training also provided some technical support such as using the Global Positioning System (GPS) to input data of particular house- hold locations.

Phase 5: Conducting household survey in the study area

The household survey involved face-to-face interviews with household heads using the standardized ques- tionnaire. Because household heads make the major economic, social, and household decisions and provide information about other members of their families (Paul B.K, 1998a), they were the ones predominantly relied on for information. In a few instances, however, other members of the household participated in the discussion and gave deeper insights. For example, some households with female heads were not able to answer the question regarding the highest level of education attained by their sons or daughters. In such cases, older members of the family helped provide accurate answers. All household information was rec- orded on paper and later transferred online using the Lime Survey software.

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4.5.2 Informal discussions

Our interviews with household heads were accompanied by nine informal discussions with residents and members of the local government in the study villages, including chairpersons and members of the Union Parishad (lowest administrative unit of Bangladesh). These informal discussions were conducted through unstructured interviews; they highlighted personal perceptions and histories. Information pertaining to the benefits of the awareness program, adult education, the most resilient forms of housing, the most important practical skills for daily activities, and different challenges and household experiences during and after cy- clones was collected.

4.5.3 Key informant interviews

A key informant is an individual who has in-depth knowledge of a particular field and can provide percep- tive information to the investigator (Kun et al., 2013). The current study conducted six interviews with key informants selected from local, regional, and national organizations (see Table 4.2). All key informant in- terviews were carried out in English. The interviews were conducted in a natural and relaxed environment, and the interview process was flexible and open rather than structured. The important information was noted on paper and recorded on a smart phone. These key informant interviews provided not only important in- formation on the overall characteristics and decision-making processes involved in coastal areas but also an opportunity to understand the contribution of particular components (e.g., mixed crop cultivation, mixed cultivation with bagda and golda shrimp, etc.) in enhancing disaster resilience. Table 4.2 illustrates an over- all description of the key informant interviews.

Table 4.2 Interviews with selected key informants, 2014–2015

Position Organizations/ Department Collected information

Head of the news

Development journalist, Channel i

Areas most affected by Cyclones Sidr and Aila, salinity intrusion, salinity tolerant rice varieties, adaptation strate- gies of local farmers, shrimp cultivation

Director Uttaron (local NGO) Household savings, early marriages cause low levels of

literacy and unemployment Assistant

director

Bangladesh Resource Center of Indigenous Knowledge (BARCIK)

Role of NGOs in coastal areas, keys for youth develop- ment, impacts of polders

Scientific officer

Bangladesh Water Resource Planning Organization (WARPO)

Main causes of water scarcity in coastal areas, commu- nity-based water distribution

Assistant director

Dwip Unnayan Sangstha (DUS) (local NGO)

Role of volunteers during disasters, suitable crops, story behind state land (khash) distribution

Project of- ficer

Land zoning project, Dhaka Land utilization, process of land distribution to the mar- ginal farmers

Member Union Disaster Management

Committee (UNDMC), Ramapal, Khulna

Important initiatives during last disasters, what type of help was provided by neighbors and friends during disas- ters, existing programs related to preparedness and awareness of disasters