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The constraints to pastoral development come from both the decreased availability of grazing resources in quantitative terms (due to the subtraction of key resources and to the limitations to long range transhumance), and a qualitative transformation of available pastures. The pastures of the Borana Plateau were known as among the best in the Great Horn of Africa, suited for grazing of the cows, due to the ecological characteristics of the prevailing plant species. The system was recognized to be in equilibrium: the vegetative cover and the human and animal pressure were in reciprocal control, but the high pressure made decrease the vegetative soil cover, that attenuated its carrying capacity. The dynamics of human and livestock population, as well as vegetative soil cover, in non equilibrated systems depend also on exogenous factors, such as rains or socio-political elements related to the access to resources380.

The encroachment of woody plant species in some portions of the studied area (as Kagofa) and the transformation of fertile grassland into impenetrable bush are cause of a wide concern among pastoral communities. The phenomenon is not new, but its overall impact seems to be perceived as more negative during the last 20 years. Bush encroachment is considered one of the most important elements threatening the resource base of the pastoral communities in southern lowlands381.

It is difficult to quantify the qualitative transformation of the vegetal cover. According to the World Bank (2003), over 40% of the southern lowlands in general and 83% of former native pastures in Borana valley have been invaded by noxious plant species382. The transition from

380 _{Pallottino Massimo, The Interplay of Power and Knowledge in Planned Social Change; From Policy Making} to Project Planning: a Case from Southern Ethiopia, Université de Geneve, Institut universitaire d'etudes du developpement, Thesis No. 19, March 2007.

381 _Ibid.

382 _{World Bank, Appraisal document for the Pastoral Community Development Project in support of the first} phase of the Pastoral Community Development Program, Rural Development Operations Eastern & Southern Africa, AFTRl Africa Region, Washington D.C., 2003.

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grassland to bush becomes critical when the bush cover exceeds the 30% of the vegetation cover, because this process can lead to the disappearing of palatable herbaceous species383. The available sources (including oral local historians) report that the process of bush encroachment took place in the last 80 years or so384. The majority of commentators (including those from local communities) agree that a key role in accelerating this trend was played by the ban of the bush fire. The practice was banned by the Ethiopian government in 1975, in favour of productive rangelands practices.

Traditional range management techniques included the periodical fire of pastures to regenerate the prevalence of herbaceous species. The grazing in the first year of growth is more nutritious than later grazing, thus adding specific qualities to the pastures385. This practice is linked also to labour saving objectives within a context of land abundance. The side effect is the risk of having bush fire running out of control, endangering vast portions of the territory. More recently, the virtues of traditional rangelands management have been recognized: bush fire represents a way of regenerating the vegetative cover of the rangelands, by allowing an easier predominance of herbaceous species rather than the unpalatable bushy species, as well as their nutritional value. Periodical burning of pastures has also advantages for controlling ticks and other pests.

Grazing is also part of the maintenance of the agro-ecosystem: abandoned landscapes tend to be invaded by the bush, which may therefore be the outcome of under-grazing. An example of this can be Golbo area of northern Kenya, where bush encroachment occurred around forty years ago, when the use of grazing lands by the pastoralists was reduced due to insecurity factors386. Adugna Fekadu, in his MA Thesis ''Inter-ethnic relation between the Oromo and Somali: the case of Borana, Digodia and Marehan'' Social Antrhopology, Addis Ababa 2004, mentions the case of the resource border between Borana and Digodia. The territory remained under-used because of conflicts from 1997 to 2002 and was invaded by the bush. The long- term adaptation of pastoral communities to this trend includes the differentiation of herds, and the adoption of browsing animals such as camels and goats, that can exploit the bushy vegetal species.

383 _{Oba G., Where the bulls fight, it is the grass that suffers: impact of border administration on drought coping} strategies of the Obbu Booran during the 20th Century, Journal of Oromo Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2000. 384

According to Oba (1998) there is little evidence of this phenomenon from the oral sources referring to the period before the gada of Maad‟a Galma (1944-52).

385 _{Oba G., Where the bulls fight, it is the grass that suffers: impact of border administration on drought coping} strategies of the Obbu Booran during the 20th Century, Journal of Oromo Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2000. 386

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Especially in areas with a consistent increment of settled population, as El Leh on the Somali side, it is evident a relevant expansion of degraded land to the detriment of woodland. This is exploited as source of energy, source of animal feed and wood for construction. This phenomenon is depleting resources and degrading the environment, exposing the area even to desertification. The settlement process challenged the traditional management of natural resources, as pastures, feed and wood, and increased the susceptibility of the area for land degradation387.