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6.2 Exploring emotional literacy -

The language intervention literature.

The current project involved a follow-up study at 11-years o f control and experimental group children involved in the Manchester-based BabyTalk intervention (Ward, 1999). For a number o f reasons, the focus o f this study was to explore the social functioning and emotional literacy o f the experimental group in comparison to controls. The need for such variables to be explored following early language intervention has recently been emphasised by both the World Health Organisation (Enderby, 1992) and a large government funded meta-analysis o f outcome following early language intervention (Law et al, 1998). While exploration o f improvements in the areas of social and emotional functioning following language intervention are limited and their methodology questionable (e.g. Fowler, 1993 & 1997), there is preliminary and anecdotal evidence that such an improvement might be associated with successful intervention. In addition to this, many studies which have followed up children identified with language delay who received either no or ineffective intervention have reported impaired emotional functioning and understanding at later follow-up (e.g. Conti-Ramsden et al, 2001, Johnson et al, 1999). These reviews concurred about the need for further consideration o f the effects o f language ability on functioning in the realms o f cognitive, behavioural and social abilities.

Exploring emotional literacy - IQ data.

In addition, the interest in exploring emotional intelligence with this sample was encouraged by the remarkable results of the 7-year follow-up data. The finding that shot the BabyTalk intervention into the media spotlight in 1999 was that the BabyTalk experimental group had IQ scores well above average and one standard deviation higher than the control group. Closer examination o f this data revealed that

this improvement in Full Scale IQ was not brought about by an improvement in Verbal IQ alone. Indeed the difference between the control and experimental groups was even more marked for Performance IQ than Verbal IQ. This had occurred despite the fact that although language delayed children typically demonstrate disadvantages in Verbal IQ, their Performance IQ is typically not impaired (Stark et al, 1983). It seemed therefore that additional influences had been at work in the improvements in evidence in the BabyTalk intervention, which might well be in evidence in other areas o f functioning.

Exploring emotional literacy - attachment literature.

It would be disingenuous not to admit that the initial interest in the BabyTalk project was a theory about what those 'additional influences at work' might be. It was recognised that the format o f the BabyTalk intervention, in encouraging that mother and child to spend at least 30 minutes a day o f quality, uninterrupted, one-to-one, child-led and highly vocal interaction avoiding reprimands, at least contained elements in common with interventions designed to enhance mother-child attachment security. The emphasis in the programme o f the importance o f the mothers' "total availability" (Ward, 2000) does seem likely to have made the child "feel secure and untroubled about the availability o f the attachment figure" (Ainsworth, 1978) which remains the working definition o f what we mean by infant security.

In her studies in Uganda, Mary Ainsworth noted that the mothers o f the most secure infants were those who were most talkative and emotionally open in their engagements with her (Ainsworth, 1967). In this sense, the relationship between a mother's verbal style and her infant's security has long been drawn. More recently, a meta-analysis o f attachment research has attempted to identify the key components in mother-child behaviour relating to attachment security (De W olff and van IJzendoom, 1997). O f particular importance were two concepts labeled mutuality and synchrony. The former construct, mutuality (Kiser et al, 1986) relates to mother and child engaging in joint attention and affective sharing. Synchrony (Isabella et al, 1991) refers to the extent that interaction is reciprocal and mutually rewarding. The BabyTalk intervention certainly seems to emphasise such aspects o f parent-child interaction. As Belsky (2002) writes o f the possible link between attachment and

language abilities, "the very sensitivity that promotes security leads to interactions that are optimally suited for "stretching" the child's linguistic capacities." (Belsky, 2002, p.375).

A secure, close, consistent, joyful interaction between mother and child, then, is advocated by the BabyTalk intervention. It is also emphasised in other interventions associated with successful social outcome (e.g. Fowler, 1993). In the general language intervention literature the value o f encouraging the optimum interactive style between parent and infant has been acknowledged, even if the exact nature of that interactive style as 'attachment enhancing' has not been articulated.

In all, consideration o f an 'attachment' dimension to the BabyTalk intervention seems justified. However, the methodological tools for examining this hypothesis are not immediately apparent. There is no easy means o f access to the earlier attachment history o f an 11 year old child. In terms o f the wider attachment literature, however, one o f the highest correlates with earlier attachment security in this age group is social functioning and emotional understanding (e.g. Bohlin et al, 2000, Flicker et al, 1992).

Exploring emotional literacy - SDQ (Strengths and Dijjiculties Questionnaire) Findings.

From the language intervention literature and also from the posited attachment interpretation o f the BabyTalk intervention, the current thesis sought to study the Manchester sample at 11 years in terms o f the children's social and emotional functioning. Yet, the methodological tools for doing so were, for such an important aspect o f functioning, rather limited. One means o f assessing some o f the aspects o f what we understand by 'emotional intelligence' was using an established, respected, reliable and valid behavioural questionnaire, i.e. the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997). The sub-scales o f this measure are prosocial behaviour, hyperactivity, emotional symptoms, conduct problems and peer problems. In fact, o f these sub-scales the only one which reported a statistically significant difference between the control and the experimental group in favour o f the experimental group was prosocial behaviour. This finding for prosocial behaviour was o f great interest, and indeed all of the subscales and the overall score, with the

exception of hyperactivity, did reveal more optimal scores for the experimental group even if they did not reach statistical significance. This evidence seemed promising enough to anticipate that the more detailed interview-based measure o f emotional intelligence might also yield clear differences between the control and experimental group.

6.3 Constructing the F& F interview and coding sheet.

For this purpose o f examining emotional intelligence and social functioning the F&F interview and an associated coding scheme were' developed and their validity and reliability established in conjunction with a same-aged cohort from the London Parent Child Project (LPCP). The LPCP (Steele et al, 1990) is a longitudinal study with a middle-class sample, and data collected includes the parents' Adult Attachment Interviews undertaken before the children's birth, and Strange Situation assessments with the children undertaken at 12 months. Thus, the archive o f prior attachment assessments available for the London sample proved a fertile resourse for investigating the reliability and validity o f an interview-based measure o f emotional intelligence appropriate for 11-year olds.

In constructing the interview and coding scheme, attention was given to identifying the key aspects o f emotional intelligence and how best to assess these abilities. Developing the F&F interview and coding scheme with the LPCP, as mentioned above, had the added benefit o f exploring how children's responses related to their earlier attachment history. As such, the responses of the secure group o f LPCP children could be compared with the BabyTalk experimental group, such that any similarities might be suggestive o f the intervention's influence on attachment relationships. In considering patterns of attachment at 11 years, some aspects o f the interview and coding related more explicitly to core attachment concepts such as parental availability, avoidance behaviours and overall security in significant relationships. In terms of thinking about emotional intelligence, aspects o f children's abilities for metacognition and reflective functioning were examined, including their ability to assume the mental/emotional perspective o f others, and to show an understanding o f diverse feelings being present in important relationships. For further

details o f the rational behind the interview format, refer to Chapter 3. The interview and coding scheme are reproduced in Appendix I and II. Thoughts about the validity o f the assessment technique are discussed later in this chapter.

6.4 Findings with the BabyTalk sample

Results from the F& F interview as it applied to the BabyTalk sample.

It was a great disappointment therefore that the differences between the control and experimental BabyTalk group was not statistically significant for most o f the subscales o f the F&F interview. The two groups were not differentiated by their skill at perspective taking, ability to acknowledge diverse feelings in others or their self­ assessed social competence and quality o f peer relationships. Also, part o f the interview coding was classification o f the children as secure or insecure in relation to important relationships. A difference between the groups seemed to emerge here, with 67% o f the experimental group classified as secure, verses only 42 % o f controls, however this missed statistical significance in such a small sample. One subscale, reaction to distress, did however show a remarkable difference between the control and experimental groups (p<.001). This scale referred to children's responses to a question asking what they do when distressed. The BabyTalk experimental group children tended to have active and adaptive responses to this question. Either seeking comfort form others or engaging in a favoured activity that relieved their unhappiness. The control group children were much more likely to act either passively or aggressively; children mentioned sobbing into pillows, ju st ignoring it, or "taking it out" on their siblings or friends. This sub-scale was, with the LPCP, associated with earlier attachment in terms o f the Strange Situation with mother at 12 months, but was not related to the mother's Adult Attachment interview security. It was with great interest that it was noted that this one sub-scale that did differentiate the control and experimental groups was effectively a measure o f the child's "non-verbal" behaviour rather than a strictly verbal capacity. This finding, prompted speculations stemming from the literature on early brain development, and encouraged a new approach to looking at the interview data, this time examining non- verbal communication o f the children.

Results o f the BabyTalk sample's responses to the NEBS.

Children's responses to how they reacted to distress suggested that the influence o f participating in the BabyTalk intervention might be more evident at 11-years in terms o f their non-verbal behavioural responses to the emotionally challenging questions. Recent research from neurobiology also suggests that in the period when the BabyTalk programme was principally delivered (9 months to 24 months) it is the right side o f the brain, associated with emotional expression and non-verbal social capacities, which is predominately developing. The left hemisphere, associated more with language development, is also o f course influenced at this time, but develops more fully later and, importantly, is more open to continuing influences throughout development. Interestingly, it is the right side o f the brain which is comparatively more active when the attachment system is aroused (e.g. in a mother's responding to her infant's cries).

A closer examination o f the children's non-verbal right brain-associated behaviours seemed justified, but once again the methodological tools for doing so were lacking. A protocol for examining "non-verbal" behaviour was therefore established after due consideration o f the aspects o f behaviour, such as negative affect and eye contact, most likely to be o f import. (See Chapter 5 for further details o f the rational and formation o f the Non-verbal and Emotional Behaviour scales (NEBS).)

The results o f this analysis revealed that the control and experimental group children were significantly differentiated in several aspects o f their "non-verbal behaviour". Analysis with the LPCP had shown associations between displays o f distress and fear and frustration with earlier Strange Situation security with mother. Remarkably, statistically significant differences also emerged between the control and experimental group for their displays o f negative affect and frustration. A composite score, non­ verbal overall which included the scores from 'reaction to distress' in the F&F interview, and "non-verbal" measures o f distress/fear and frustration (highly associated with earlier attachment in the LPCP (p<.001)) also clearly differentiated the control and experimental group. These results are exciting, but raised questions about how such marked differences existed in the non-verbal behaviour o f the

children bui not in their verbal expression o f emotional intelligence following a language intervention!

Comparing findings from Group 1 and Group 2 BabyTalk intervention children.

In seeking to understand the findings from the F&F interview and NEBS data further, analysis was made comparing the results for different forms o f the BabyTalk intervention which were delivered. The exact nature o f the BabyTalk intervention depended on the particular nature o f the children's difficulties. O f the children followed up at 11 years, some had earlier been diagnosed with expressive and receptive language delay alone, while others had additional difficulties with listening skills in terms o f focusing selectively on sound. The latter children received a more enhanced BabyTalk programme with special emphasis on altering the interactive style o f mother and infant. Proximity with the infant during interactions was especially encouraged to help the infant perceive her input clearly and it was emphasised that the mothers should always respond to their child's communicative efforts. These aspects o f the intervention ; the importance o f the proximity o f the infant to the mother, their eye-contact, and the nature o f the shared communication passing between them, all emphasised by the group 1 BabyTalk programme, are cited by Mary Ainsworth (1967) as critical aspects in the development o f attachment.

In order to examine whether the children who had the group 1 intervention were more likely to display behaviours at 11 years indicative o f earlier secure attachment, comparisons were undertaken o f group I verses group 2 BabyTalk intervention children. Caution is needed when interpreting these results due to the small sample size involved and the post-hoc nature o f the hypothesis, however differences were impressive none-the-less. The group 2 children's average full scale IQ was only 85, representing a below average score, while the Group 1 infants had an average IQ o f

115. This then represents two standard deviations o f difference in terms o f the general population performance.

In terms o f the F&F interview assessment. Group 1 children were significantly more likely to be able to take the perspective o f their mother and to be judged secure overall. The likelihood that they had a better quality o f friendship with their best

friend only narrowly missed statistical significance. Differences between group 1 and group 2 in terms o f "non-verbal" behaviour were not marked, however, suggesting that any form o f the BabyTalk intervention was sufficient to elicit change in that area. Group 1 intervention was, however, significantly more likely to increase the child's confidence displayed during the interview. It seemed that the special properties o f the added aspects o f the Group 1 children's BabyTalk intervention was accounting for enhanced IQ performance as well as influencing aspects o f behaviour associated with emotional intelligence. Properties o f the more basic BabyTalk intervention given to group 2 was sufficient to have an impact on "non-verbal" behaviour displayed a decade after the intervention took place. Considerable thought is warranted to consider how these findings can be explained.

Explaining the BabyTalk 11-year results.

The sample.

It was initially a surprise, given the marked differences between the control and experimental group in IQ at 7 years, that a statistically significant difference between the groups was not evident in their SATs results. Perhaps these national tests were rather clumsy measures of children's performance, or perhaps the current sample were not representative o f the 7 year sample in terms o f academic achievement. To explore the latter hypothesis, the 7 year IQ scores o f the control and experimental group were compared for just the sub-group from that sample who were also followed-up at 11 years. In this group no significant differences remained. The same applied to language functioning at 7 years as assessed by the WORD (Weschler Objective reading Dimension, Rust, 1996) and WOLD tests (Weschler Objective Language Dimension, Rust, 1992). Differences between the control and experimental group for those children remaining in the study at 11 years no longer existed. It seemed that somehow the current 11 year BabyTalk experimental group consisted o f children who had not in fact benefited from the intervention at all in terms o f IQ or language functioning - this in contrast to the highly significant and dramatic changes elicited for the whole group at 7 years. This sampling anomaly is extremely hard to explain, and was initially vastly, disappointing in suggesting the poor chances o f finding any significant differences between the groups that remained. . However the findings

reinforce how inappropriate an approach to long-term follow up is which seeks only to consider 'how long' a particular change will last. Far more illuminating is exploration of the processes in operation driving these changes, which may be expressed differently at different stages o f development. Indeed differences in aspects o f functionirg, particularly "non-verbal" behaviour, were detected, and the fact that they existed independently o f language or IQ improvement makes them all the more interesting. The theoretical implications o f this are explored below.

First, how can the sampling anomaly have occurred? How can it be that by chance the groups followed up at 11 years contains those children who at 7 years showed least improvement in language and IQ functioning. It could be that this is due in part to differential attrition between 7 at 11 years. The 11-year sample were collected by giving a list of the names o f the original BabyTalk sample to the Manchester Local Educational Authority. They in turn supplied the names o f the schools that the children attended. Only children who were still attending schools in Manchester were