The research findings indicate differences in the strengths of associations between different types of intentional activities and wellbeing outcomes, which suggest that some intentional activities may be more beneficial than others. Support for the role of socially-oriented, spiritual, cognitive and goal-related activities, is consistent with previous research on younger adults’ intentional happiness-enhancing activities and on older adults’ more general leisure activities. In addition to these activities, and as indicated previously, this research also revealed self-concordant work to be another important type of activity. With the limited work conducted thus far on the intentional happiness-enhancing activities in which people choose to engage, I hesitate to draw strong conclusions. However, in terms of practical implications, the results of this research would indicate that educational initiatives should be tailored to identify and promote self-concordant and socially-oriented activities, interests, and goals. With the strongest results identified for self-concordant work, the findings point to the benefits of personally fulfilling activities, and the importance of personal strengths, abilities and values. A practical implication of the research results could be to look at ways to continue with, or identify new, self-concordant work activities (e.g., help individuals identify activities that are best suited to them in terms of fit with their interests and abilities, such as with the use of a strengths inventory).
Consistent with both previous and present research findings is support for a continued focus on socially-oriented activities, but with the caveat that it is not a ‘one-size-fits-all’ strategy. This is because individuals have different interests, concerns, priorities, circumstances, and abilities; and not all individuals may prefer or enjoy socially-oriented activities. While there is already an awareness of the health promoting value of social engagement (Pond, Stephens, & Alpass, 2010), the results of this research suggest that benefits may also be found for those who prefer more solitary activities. For example, if an individual is not inclined to participate in social activities, then engaging in personally rewarding solitary
Discussion 140 activities that fit with interests and abilities, and are challenging but achievable, may be just as beneficial, if not more so.
In comparison to the support for self-concordant and socially-oriented activities, the results pertaining to spiritual and thought-related activities were relatively weak. The findings suggest cognitive strategies may not be as beneficial as popular psychology help books indicate –for this cohort at least. The findings were somewhat inconsistent with those of previous related research, such as Tkach and Lyubomirsky’s (2006) finding of religion being one of the strongest predictors of current happiness (for younger adults). The lack of significant associations between spiritual and thought-related activities, and either concurrent or later physical or mental health, were also unexpected given previous findings of relationships between these types of activities and health for older adults, (e.g., Agahi & Parker, 2005; Ellison & Levin, 1998; Koenig, 2000; Lawler- Row & Elliott, 2009; Paillard-Borg, Wang, Winblad, & Fratiglioni, 2009; Schaie, Krause, & Booth, 2004). Possible explanations for the present research findings may relate to the complexity of associations between these activities and wellbeing and health variables, and differences in the specific activities examined in different studies. Bearing in mind the inconsistencies and possible explanations, further research is recommended to help clarify associations and better understand and assess this type of activity.
As was the case with spiritual activities, while goal-focused activity was reported to be one of the strongest predictors of happiness in previous research with younger adults (e.g., Tkach & Lyubomirsky, 2006), in comparison, the results of this research were less definitive. Study One revealed mixed findings regarding goals, with some participants identifying goal-centred activities as happiness- enhancing, while others indicated that long-term goals had either changed considerably or were no longer seen as important in relation to their happiness. Again the possibility of age-related changes in activities was signified. The quantitative results also indicate support for age-related differences with the finding that older respondents reported lower importance and engagement ratings for goals than younger respondents.
Another aspect relating to the importance of goal-focused activities was that while the quantitative results indicate that older adults with higher goal-focused
Discussion 141 activity ratings are happier and healthier than those with lower ratings, when considered together, the research results suggest that goals are not as important as self-concordant work and socially-oriented activities are to happiness and health. However, given the mixed findings regarding goal-focused activity and the possibility of age-related differences, more research is recommended to delve deeper into this type of intentional activity, starting with further development of the HAPPI goal items to help identify if particular goal-focused activities are better than others (e.g., personal relationships vs. materialistic; short-term vs. long-term).
Policy and Initiatives
Support for the ability of intentional activities to increase happiness could have promising implications, especially given research findings regarding the flow- on effects of happiness. Research results will contribute to social policy and community service provision by increasing our understanding of the factors that influence well-being among older adults. This research aligns with the current focus on positive aging; with findings likely to contribute to policy and interventions designed to improve people’s wellbeing and health. With the influence of intentional activities on wellbeing outcomes, and the directionality of these pathways confirmed, these new understandings can better inform policy and education initiatives that are aimed at the individuals who need them most. Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) indicated in their review of intervention studies that depressed individuals, and older adults, benefitted the most from positive psychology interventions. However, the review identified only three studies with older adults, and the interventions employed in these studies were limited to mainly cognitive-based exercises. Further research with a wider range of strategies is recommended to confirm the efficacy of intervention programmes to enhance wellbeing for those the programmes are targeted towards (e.g., retirement communities, depressed individuals), before implementing initiatives on a larger scale.
Although there is little information available on older adults’ happiness- enhancing activities, such information is important to those working with older adults and is sought after for activity and wellness programmes. With this lack of, and need for, information in this area, I have already been asked to contribute to an international publication by the International Council on Active Aging (see
Discussion 142 Appendix G for a copy of the published article). As their vice president of education notes, enhancing older adult happiness underlies the goals of most activity and wellbeing programmes for those in retirement communities and seniors’ centres, and the findings of this research can help guide programming in these contexts (P. Ryan, personal communication, January 17, 2011). This said, as this research programme was based on community samples of 55-75 year olds, and given the possibility of age-related differences in intentional happiness-enhancing activities, research into the intentional activities of those over 75 years is recommended to better inform such initiatives.