In past research, SDL was defined as a process where the students on their own initiative identify their learning goals and work out a way to achieve the goals (Knowles, 1975). Knowles’ definition further explained that the approaches the students choose can be with or without the help of others. Hence, it is interpreted in this study that being SDL
55
readied should be independent of the learning styles or teaching styles. Following the steps of Knowles, many researchers had endeavoured to study SDL. The history of investigation into SDL is summarized in Table 3.1.
According to Table 3.1, much research have focused on the development of SDL theories, concepts and the definition. From definitions of SDL some research branched out to understand the SDL readiness. Therefore some attempts have been made to develop scales in measuring the readiness of students’ readiness in SDL since the 1970s. Based upon the literature review, SDL readiness was referred to the degree of the attitudes, abilities and personality characteristics an individual possesses for learning (Areewan, Nongkran, Acharaporn, & Sue, 2010). This readiness needed to be specific for the subject matter (Brockett, 1985a). Hence, SDL readiness is the capability of one in setting and achieving the goals of learning, in strategising and allocating the resources, and evaluating the learning outcomes (Stockdale & Brockett, 2010). Therefore according to Bloom’s Taxonomy for one to be SDL readied, one needs to possess higher levels of knowledge domains which is metacognitive knowledge (Hagstrom, 2006). Combining the understanding of the SDL and SDL readiness, the current research anticipated that the SDL readiness is independent from learning styles and teaching styles. The readiness is the specific skills and knowledge which one possesses with metacognitive knowledge to increase the potential or capability of one in setting and achieving the learning objectives with the resources available. Based upon this understanding, a notion of SDL readiness
56
Table 3.1 History of Self-directed Learning Research
Researcher Year Contribution
Cyril Houle 1961
1980
Influencing the explosion of research, thoughts and literature in SDL. Initiate the thought of the way adults prefer to learn.
Served as dissertation advisor to Allen Tough and Malcolm Knowles. Extended SDL beyond merely a “process” of learning.
Allen Tough 1966 Continue the blossom of adult learning.
Encouraging understanding to adults’ learning projects and growing awareness worldwide about SD learners.
Malcolm Knowles 1975 First given definition of SDL.
Suggesting andragogy which refers to learners’ effort in learning. Known as father of “adult education”.
Guglielmino, Lucy 1977
2006
Development of Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS). It was then refers as Learning Preference Assessment in 2005.
Suggested the relationship of SDLR with job performance.
Gibbons at. el. 1980 Continue the growth of literature of SDL in terms of theoretical approach, pedagogical
approach, and concept.
Brookfield, S. 1984 Suggested a paradigm shift in SDLR study from quantitative measurement to qualitative
study.
Brockett 1985 Suggested the study of SDL to address the political implication.
Critics the measurement of SDLRS was much oriented toward learning through books and schooling.
Proposed that successful self-directed learner is one who has an awareness of what he wants to learn and knows how to go about learning it.
Caffarella &
O’Dannel 1987 Brought the concept of SDL to work related measurement.
Roger Hiemstra 1990
2006
Summarized the study of SDL from Cyril Houle, Allen Trough, Malcolm Knowles, and Huey B. Long.
Proposed the development of SDL in distance learning and computer based learning.
Grow 1991 Proposed the matching of teaching style to develop students’ SDL skills.
Garrison 1992
1997
Proposed SDL as both personally meaningful and socially worthwhile. Suggested incorporation of critical thinking to the concept of Self-directed learning.
Learners will not succeed and prosiest in their learning without cognitive abilities and available strategies. Degree of self-directedness depends upon learner’s proficiency in conjunction with contextual and epistemological demands.
Long , Huey B. 1986 Founded an annual international symposium on SDL
Oddi, L. F. 1986 Development of Oddi Continuing Learning Inventory
Murray Fisher at.el. 2001 Development of SDLRS for nursing education.
Gurjeet, S. Shoker 2002 Suggested that learning unpreparedness for SDL was simply due to the lack of
opportunities to do so.
Williamson, S.N. 2007 Self-rating scale of Self-Directed learning in undergraduate nursing education.
Suggested SDL skills could be developed through careful planning and integration into the curriculum.
Dynan, Linda 2008 Suggested that SDL skills can be instilled with planned curriculum and should be taught
much earlier than tertiary education.
Hassan, Murad 2008 Proposed the key principles of SDL.
57
From Table 3.2, it can be seen that much past research focused on measuring the SDL readiness among undergraduate nursing students. Furthermore, these past developed scales in measuring SDL readiness focused on medical students. There is also a scale developed by Ayyildiz and Tarhan (2015) in measuring high school students’ SDL skills. There seems to be a lack of studies on pre-university students’ SDL readiness. However, many researchers have found that fresh undergraduates were incompetent in SDL (Chakravarthi & Haleagajara, 2010). The fresh undergraduates were found incompetent in determining their learning objectives and the way they want to achieve these objectives (Fisher et al., 2001). They also were incapable of identifying the scope for their learning (Belzer et al., 2003; Hendry & Ginns, 2009). Therefore, Dynan et al. (2008) suggested looking into the pre-university students’ readiness for better understanding of the SDL readiness.
Hence, the current research aimed to develop a readiness scale for measuring the self-evaluated level of SDL readiness among the pre-university students. The subject in this study was Biology as SDL is implemented for biological fields of study in tertiary education.
From the literature review, it was found that not many studies have been conducted in understanding the readiness of teachers for SDL lessons. Additionally past research has shown that teachers face difficulties being readied for SDL lessons as students have different level of SDL readiness (Cho & Kwon, 2005; Garrison, 1997; Hannafin, Hannafin, & Gabbitas, 2009; Hendry & Ginns, 2009). Therefore, this research also aimed to close the gap in understanding the teachers’ SDL readiness for lessons. A scale was also developed to measure the self-evaluated SDL readiness for lessons among the Biology teachers.
58
Table 3.2 History of Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scales Development
Researcher Year Scale Target Group Scale
development method
Data analysis
tool Constructs Total of
items
Scoring Ayyildiz
Tarhan
2015 Self-Directed
Learning Skills High-school students in Turkey
CFA
EFA Attitude towards learning Learning responsibility Motivation and self- confidence
Ability to plan learning Ability to use learning opportunities Ability to manage information
Ability to apply learning strategies Assessment of learning process Evaluation of learning success/results 40 Stockdale, Susan L. Brockett, R. G. 2011 Personal Responsibility Orientation Model of Self- Directedness in Learning (PRO- SDLS)
College Students Awareness
Self-Efficacy Control Motivation Swapna Naskar Williamson 2007 Self-rating scale of Self-directed learning (SRSSDL) undergraduate
nursing students Delphi Technique Internal consistency : Chronbach’s Coefficient Alpha Awareness Learning strategies Learning activities Evaluation Interpersonal Skills 12 12 12 12 12 Murray
Fisher 2001 Self directed learning readiness scale for nursing education
Undergraduate
nursing students Delphi Technique Varimax rotation, Chronbach’s coefficient alpha, Item-to-total correlations Self-management Desire for learning Self control 13 12 14 Oddi 1986 Revised in 2006 Oddi Continuing Learning Inventory (OCLI) Graduate students in Law, Nursing and Education Orthogonally Rotated Four- factor solutions Chi-square Proactive/reactive learning drive domain Commitment/aversion to learning
Cognitive openness/ defensiveness. Revised version Learning with others Learner Motivation/Self- Efficacy/Autonomy Ability to be Sefl- Regulating Reading Avidity 11 7 6 6 8 5 5 Guglielmino 1977 Self-directed learning readiness scale (SDLRS) Delphi
Technique Openness to learning opportunities Self concept as an effective learner, Initiative and dependence in learning Informed acceptance of responsibility for one’s own learning A love to learn, Creativity Future orientation Ability to use basic study and problem solving skills 58 – 176 Low Readiness 177 – 201 below average readiness 202 – 226 average 227 – 251 above average 252 – 290 High readiness
University of Malaya
59
The literature review also revealed that there were few studies on the factors influencing the SDL readiness both for the students and teachers. According to past research, SDL behaviours can be developed by proper planning of SDL lessons (Dynan et al., 2008; Kocaman et al., 2009; Williamson, 2007). However, factors which contributed to the readiness were not found in the literature review. Therefore, the current research also aimed to identify the factors which could possibly influence the SDL readiness among the students and the teachers.
From the identified gaps, the current research aimed to work on 3 working hypotheses. Firstly, it was anticipated that SDLR is independent of learning styles. Students can be self-directed readied regardless of which learning styles they preferred. Secondly, it was also anticipated that SDLeR is independent of teaching styles. Teachers can be readied for SDL lessons regardless of which teaching styles they preferred. The third working hypothesis anticipated that constructive interactions contributed to SDLR and SDLeR. The proposed constructive interactions which occur during lessons will engage teachers and students to the lessons. This will in turn trigger interest which can lead to the development of skills and knowledge for SDL needed or the subject.
Figure 3.1 shows the conceptual framework of this study. The figure will help the readers to have a better view of the research concepts.
60
Figure 3.1 Conceptual Framework
Past research of SDL related to student
Development of Self-directed Learning Readiness Scales by various researchers.
Focused at medicine and nursing undergraduate education. Studies focused at the readiness of general learning skills, self- motivation, self-efficacy and self-evaluating.
(Bonham, 1991; M. J. Fisher & King, 2010; Guglielmino & Guglielmino, 2006; Harvey, 2006; Oddi, 1986; Williamson, 2007)
Past research of SDL related to teacher
Influence of teaching approaches towards students’ learning interest. Matching of teaching styles to students’ learning preferences. Teacher providing opportunities for students to developed SDL skills. (Grow, 1991; Gurjeet, Navkiran, Cecilia, & Bulik, 2002; Kek & Huijser, 2011; Sail & Alavi, 2010)
Gap
Lack of study for SDLR among pre-university students
Gap
Lack of study for SDLeR among teachers
Fresh undergraduate students were found incompetence and unprepared for SDL. Students having difficulties of identifying the depth and breadth of their learning
(Belzer et al., 2003; Chakravarthi et al., 2010; Fisher et al., 2001; Hendry & Ginns, 2009).
Gap
Factors influencing the SDLR and SDLeR
Self-directed Learner Proposed Notion of Readiness for Self-Directed Learning
The specific skills and knowledge one possesses in setting and achieving the learning objectives with or without the help of others regardless of the learning styles and teaching styles.
Working Hypotheses:
i. SDLR is independent of learning styles.
ii. SDLeR is independent of teaching styles.
iii. When SDLR is independent from learning styles and SDLeR is independent from teaching styles, constructive interactions in the classroom contribute to both SDLR and SDLeR.
Past research of SDL and SDLR
SDL definition:
- A process in which an individual takes the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating and implementing appropriate learning strategies and evaluating learning outcomes (Knowles, 1975)
- A process of learning in which learners take the primary responsibility or initiative in the learning experience and as a personal attribute of the learner (M. J. Fisher & King, 2010; M. Fisher et al., 2001).
SDLR understandings
- Readiness of SDL was referred to the degree of an individual possess the attitudes, abilities and personality characteristics necessary for SDL (Areewan Klunklin et al., 2010; M. Fisher et al., 2001).
- Self-directed learners are those who are technically competent at setting goals, locating and choosing appropriate resources, designing learning strategies and generating evaluative indices (Brookfield, 1984, 1985).
61